Albert Afraid of Hawk, Ogallala Sioux, 1899. 150
John Afraid of Hawk congratulates author during Lakota Naming Ceremony. 159
William F. “Buffalo Bill” Cody, 1900. 178
Buffalo Bill’s Lakota “Show Indians,” 1900. 183
Burial Scaffold of Albert Afraid of Hawk, September 2012. 218
Maps
All maps by Bill Keegan
Cornwall Center, Connecticut, in 1817. 58
The High Plains Lakota Reservations. 125
Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, South Dakota. 153
Acknowledgments
Upon completing this book, the reader will be aware that these narratives were a truly collaborative effort. Though written from a personal perspective, neither of the repatriations happens without multiple individuals contributing their expertise in the field, laboratory, and archives. Likewise, editorial processes require the dedication and commitment of so many people who give of their time and talents to improve the final product. Hence, readers, reviewers, editors, and researchers are critical to the process and deserve recognition. And, of course, without the Lee and Afraid of Hawk families, there are no stories to tell. Though I get my name on the title page as author, any book, and especially one like this, is rarely the effort of a single individual. As a result, we are grateful to acknowledge our numerous colleagues who believed in this project.
Likewise, field archaeology is a multi-disciplinary effort. With us in the field at Cornwall Cemetery for the ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia exhumation were David G. Cooke, Richard LaRose, Gary Hottin, Michael Alan Park, Bill and Kristen Keegan, David A. Poirier, Ruth Shapleigh-Brown, Shelley Smith, Jeffrey Bendremer, Nancy and John J. O’Donnell, Angela Bellantoni, Henry Fuqua, Rev. Carmen Wooster, Will Trowbridge, and William A. Dineen, Jr. In addition, we are indebted to the friendship and graciousness of Ben Gray and Amy Johnson, who have maintained the Foreign Mission School’s Steward’s House in Cornwall to its National Historic Landmark status. At Wooster Cemetery, Danbury, we were expertly assisted by the following individuals: Robert Young, Mary-Jo Young, Tania Porta, David Smith, Dan DeLuca, Kenneth Beatrice, Jeremy Pilver, Bruce Greene, William Morlock, Richard Red Elk, Wendell and Nancy Deer With Horns, Ed Sarabia, Deborah Surabian, Daniel Cruson, David Smith, the Danbury Civil Air Patrol, Gary Aronson, Dawn Petrocelli, Norma E. Vinchkoski, Tom Keane, and Christine Rose. In the forensic laboratories we were fortunate to have Michael Alan Park, Gary Aronson, David G. Cooke, Richard LaRose, William “Bill” Keegan, and Bruce Greene.
Archival research was conducted at a number of libraries and research centers throughout the country. We would like to acknowledge the assistance and cooperation of Stephen Rice and Kendall Wiggin, Connecticut State Library; Richard Malley, Connecticut Historical Society; Roger Thompson, Friends of the Office of State Archaeology; Gail Kruppa and Mark MacEachern, Torrington Historical Society; Rachel Guest and Jamie Cantoni, Cornwall Historical Society; Diane Hassan, Danbury Historical Society and Museum; Tawa Ducheneaux and Stella Iron Cloud, Oglala Lakota College Library; Elizabeth Thrond, Center for Western Studies, Augustana College; Deborah Adams, Buffalo Bill Center of the West; the Office of State Archaeology, Connecticut State Museum of Natural History; and staffs at the Federal Indian Archives in New York, the New York Public Library, and the Omaha Public Library.
We were lucky enough to take advantage of the exhaustive genealogical research into the Afraid of Hawk family conducted by Robert “Bob” Young. His friendship and permission to use his data in this book improved the accuracy of its content. Bob’s passion for Albert Afraid of Hawk continues to motivate.
This book would never have been possible without the contributions of many reviewers and readers who took the time to inspect the text for editorial purposes and historical accuracy. I am totally indebted for the encouragement, criticisms, and comments of Marven Moss, Collin Harty, Bill and Kristen Keegan, Lucianne Lavin, Noenoe Silva, J. Kēhaulani Kauanui, Bob and Mary-Jo Young, and six anonymous readers who improved several drafts of this manuscript. We are grateful to Christopher L. Cook for sharing his extensive research into the life of Henry ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia. Technical support was provided by Bill Keegan (maps) and Brian Meyer (photos/index) whose cartographic and organizational abilities enhanced the final product. All these colleagues have improved this book in so many ways. I remain grateful for all their friendships and expertise.
Along with the technical contributions of reviewers and editors, I would also like to acknowledge the meaningful conversations I have had over the years in helping me formulate my thoughts on repatriation and understanding Native American and Hawaiian concerns about archaeology and its effect on Indigenous Peoples. In this regard, I am indebted to Ed Sarabia (Tlingit), Noenoe Silva and J. Kēhaulani Kauanui (Hawaiian), Rochelle Ripley, Stella Iron Cloud and Tawa Ducheneaux (Lakota), Rev. Kris Kua and Rev. Dionne Arakawa (Hawaiian). They have all taught me much and are not responsible for any misinterpretations on my part.
Any author needs to have the support, encouragement, and trust of their editors, especially a first time author, and I have benefited greatly from the professionalism of Parker Smathers, Suzanna Tamminen, Marla Zubel, and the staff at Wesleyan University Press. I can’t thank them enough for their patience, criticisms, and conceptual ideas that have made this book a reality.
And, of course, there is no book without two extraordinary women: Deborah Li‘ikapeka Lee and Marlis Afraid of Hawk, whose commitment and loyalty to family have been inspirational. It has been an honor to acknowledge them as friends and extended family. The power of their inner feelings and the responsibility of taking on the repatriations are examples to all of us of the importance of spirituality and heritage in our lives. I know that these selfless women would agree that the repatriations would never have been achieved were it not for the support of their loving families. The commitment of Debbie’s parents, Elizabeth Kapeka Ho‘omanawanui and Kwai Wah Lee, to bringing Henry home and the strength of Marlis’s father, Daniel Jay Afraid of Hawk, and her brother, John, are examples of the power and devotion of family for protecting and defining heritage, especially against over-whelming odds. And, of course, we must acknowledge Henry ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia and Albert Afraid of Hawk, whose courage to travel into the world of the cultural other we venerate.
My retirement as Connecticut State Archaeologist was, in part, to provide the time necessary to write this book. These stories resided inside me and simply had to come out. However, the hours and years devoted to this undertaking could never have been accomplished if it were not for my wife, Angela, whose advice, patience, and support have been my main inspiration. Her faith and unconditional love have made every page possible. I will love her forever.
Prologue
Deborah Li‘ikapeka Lee, a young adult Native Hawaiian (Kanaka Maoli) woman, woke in the wee small hours of an October night in 1992 far from her homeland in Seattle, Washington, to an inner sensation, impossible to define and equally impossible to ignore. Alone and unsure of what was happening to her, she feared illness and anxiously rose from her bed searching for the comfort of her Bible. She felt as if she were being called to do something, but what? The sensation continued to well up inside her, forcing its way up and out, yielding a voice that spoke as clearly as if its source were standing in front of her. She heard five words: “He wants to come home.”
Marlis Afraid of Hawk, an Oglala Lakota grandmother (unci), heard her call in the form of a midnight reverie on a warm spring night in 2012. She dreamt of a young Lakota man with flowing hair on horseback riding toward her, clothed traditionally, blowing melodiously on a flute. She was