sea‐ice extent and altered patterns of ocean circulation, precipitation, freshwater input and extreme weather events (reviewed in Doney et al. 2012; Howard et al. 2013; USGCRP 2017). In recent decades, the rates of change have been rapid, perhaps exceeding the current and potential future tolerances of many organisms to adapt. In addition, the rates of physical and chemical change in marine ecosystems will almost certainly accelerate over the next several decades in the absence of immediate and dramatic efforts toward climate mitigation.
Notes
1 1 The littoral zone extends from the high water mark, which is rarely inundated, to shoreline areas, which are permanently submerged.
2 2 A Pacific Ocean current that moves southward along the western coast of North America, beginning off southern British Columbia and ending off southern Baja California Peninsula.
3 3 The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean north of 20 °N and, depending on the phase of the oscillation, may regionally ameliorate or counter global climate trends (Stenseth et al. 2003).
4 4The horizontal movement of a mass of fluid (e.g. an ocean current); also, transport (e.g. of larvae or pollutants) by such movement.
5 5 An abnormal weather pattern caused by the warming of the Pacific Ocean near the equator, off the coast of South America.
6 6 Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time.
7 7 Crabs peel bivalve shells by inserting a large dactyl molar, a movable finger of the claw, into the aperture of the shell and progressively chipping away at its lip.
8 8 Mechanistic species distribution models use independently derived information about a species’ physiology to develop a model of the environmental conditions under which the species can exist (Kearney & Porter 2009).
9 9 Aragonite saturation state is commonly used to track ocean acidification because it is a measure of carbonate ion concentration. Aragonite is one of the more soluble forms of calcium carbonate and is widely used by marine calcifiers. When aragonite saturation state falls below 3, these organisms become stressed, and when saturation state is less than 1, shells and other aragonite structures begin to dissolve.
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