structure of pure glycerol.Figure 4.5 Roadmap of selected glycerol valorization reactions.Figure 4.6 Structure of biomass-derived CBSC.Scheme 4.1 Mechanism for the glycerol hydrogenolysis [23].Scheme 4.2 Reaction scheme for the formation of actylglycerols [27].Scheme 4.3 Reaction scheme for glycerol acetalization with acetone [29].Scheme 4.4 Steps for the formation of TAG using SO3H-C derived from glycerol [30...Figure 4.7 Selective glycerol esterification with acetic acid and lauric acid ov...Scheme 4.5 Plausible reaction plan for the production of oxygenated derivatives ...Scheme 4.6 Glycerol etherification in the presence of isobutylene [51].Figure 4.8 Glycerol dehydration in the presence of acidic catalyst [55].
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Components of lignocellulosic biomass [39].Figure 5.2 Schematic representation of pyrolysis reaction path using solid acid ...
6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Triglyceride molecule and glycerol structure representation in blue (...Figure 6.2 Fatty acid content of edible and non-edible oils (average value) from...Figure 6.3 Simplified scheme for pyrolysis reaction adapted from Idem et al. [33...
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Schematic sketch of a biomass drying process integrated into combined...Figure 7.2 Drying operation integrated to a gasification plant (based on the wor...Figure 7.3 Measurements of particles length and width.Figure 7.4 Original and segmented images of malt bagasse.Figure 7.5 Sorption isotherms for woody biomass at different temperatures.Figure 7.6 Desorption isotherm of agroindustrial solid wastes at temperature of ...Figure 7.7 Desorption isotherms of agricultural by-products at temperature of 30...Figure 7.8 Desorption isotherm of woody biomass at temperature of 50 °C [35–37].Figure 7.9 Heat of vaporization [43]. Lines represent water latent heat of vapor...Figure 7.10 Heat of desorption [43].Figure 7.11 Predicted results of the drying rate by the isothermal and non-isoth...Figure 7.12 Schematic sketch of the bench scale drying tunnel used to determine ...Figure 7.13 Schematic representation of the control volume (compartment) (based ...Figure 7.14 Schematic representation of the control volume (compartment) (based ...Figure 7.15 Simulated results for drying of citrus wastes in a rotary dryer at d...
8 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Contribution of energy resources to the total world energy.Figure 9.2 Generalized structure of the major constituents of lignocellulosic bi...Figure 9.3 Biomass processing into value-added chemicals.Figure 9.4 Chemical structures of products from biomass catalysis.Figure 9.5 Products obtained from the valorization of HMF.Figure 9.6 Products obtained from the valorization of furfural.Figure 9.7 Valorization of biomass derived HMF by various reactions.Figure 9.8 Typical products of HMF and furfural oxidation.
9 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Valorization of FPW into useful chemicals and fuels [2].Figure 10.2 The generation of FPW by various industries.Figure 10.3 Valuable products from FVPW.Figure 10.4 Phase diagram of the supercritical fluid region.Figure 10.5 A simple supercritical fluid system [7, 8].Figure 10.6 Basic schematic representation of pressurized liquid extraction [12,...Figure 10.7 Process flow chart for EAE [35].Figure 10.8 Various kinds of possible products from DPW.Figure 10.9 Basic schematic of the membrane separation process.Figure 10.10 Classification of the pressure-driven membrane separation processes...
10 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Figure shows three key polymers in plants are lignin, cellulose, and...Figure 11.2 Biomass transformation method.Figure 11.3 General mechanism of photocatalysis by TiO2.
11 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Classification of agro-waste.Figure 12.2 Recycling of food waste.Figure 12.3 Use of agro-industrial wastes and their applications.Figure 12.4a Lignocellulose and biochemical composition of crop residue.Figure 12.4b Lignocellulose and biochemical composition of agro-industrial waste...Figure 12.4c Lignocellulose and biochemical composition of agro-industrial waste...Figure 12.5 Activities of phytochemicals.Figure 12.6 Phytochemicals from different plants.Figure 12.7 Bioprocessing of enzyme from agro-waste.Figure 12.8 Life cycle system of biofuel production.Figure 12.9 Pre-treatment methods for biofuel production.
12 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Plant metabolites involved in metabolism where primary metabolites i...Figure 13.2 A schematic representation of the selection of in vitro and ex vitro...
13 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Dried starch.Figure 14.2 Structures of amylose and amylopectin.Figure 14.3 Scanning electron microscopy images (left = 5,000x, right = 2,000xma...Figure 14.4 Schematic diagram showing changes in glyosidic structures in raw, ge...Figure 14.5 Swelling powers and solubility indices of high amylose, intermediate...Figure 14.6 Different types of starch modifications.
14 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Varied agricultural waste sources for synthesis of nanomaterials.Figure 15.2 (a) Scanning electron microscopy image of sugarcane bagasse. (b) Sca...
15 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Picture highlighting the various options for recycling organic waste...Figure 16.2 Classification of agricultural wastes [27].Figure 16.3 Statistical demonstration of fertilizer consumption per hectare [30]...Figure 16.4 Flowchart depicting the anaerobic digestion process for obtaining or...Figure 16.5 Flowchart of biofuel production from agricultural waste [27].Figure 16.6 Flowchart of various pre-treatment processes for biochemical convers...Figure 16.7 (a) Methane yields of fresh apple pomaces after making juice, exhaus...Figure 16.8 Process of bioethanol production from soybean waste (okara) [50].Figure 16.9 (a) Bioreactors used to eliminate aluminium ion concentration from t...
16 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Chemical composition of different lignocellulosic biomass.Figure 17.2 Chemical composition of different algal strains.Figure 17.3 Scheme of HTL process pathway.Figure 17.4 Few important application of products recovered from HTL process.
17 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Structure of cellulose polymer.Figure 18.2 Crystalline and amorphous areas joined within the cellulose microfib...Figure 18.3 Derivatization of cellulose.Figure 18.4 Schematic representation of formation of cellulose macroderivatives ...Figure 18.5 Overall extraction procedure of cellulose and cellulose derivatives.Figure 18.6 Application of cellulose derivatives.
18 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Three main precursors of the lignin polymer.Figure 19.2 Schematic diagram of the Kraft process.Figure 19.3 Schematic diagram of organoslov process.Figure 19.4 Schematic diagram of the alkaline pre-treatment process.
19 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 Schematic representation of combustion of sludge [16].Figure 20.2 The evaluation of sludge combustion process in technological, social...Figure 20.3 Graphic illustration of the sludge pyrolysis process [22].Figure 20.4 The evaluation of sludge pyrolysis process in technological, socio-e...Figure 20.5 Diagram illustration of gasification process of the sludge [27].Figure 20.6 Evaluation of sludge gasification process in technological, socio-en...Figure 20.7 Flowsheet diagram biological fermentation steps [35].Figure 20.8 Representation of wastewater sludge-derived adsorbent production.Figure 20.9 Representative Enersludge™ procedure.Figure 20.10 Microbial fuel cell setup is shown.Figure 20.11 Conversion of sewage sludge to biofuel by bioconversion installatio...Figure 20.12 Flow sheet diagram represents the bioethanol production by the conv...
20 Chapter 21Figure 21.1 Mode of action of biofertilizers and its importance in agriculture.Figure 21.2 Different categories of formulation used amid biofertilizer producti...
21 Chapter 22Figure 22.1 (a) % Cr(VI) removal with variation of pH by sunflower head waste [5...Figure 22.2 Mechanism for adsorption of Cr(VI) onto BGAC with simultaneous reduc...
Tables
1 Chapter 1Table