as the divinity of Christ (Nicea); the title of Mary as the Mother of God (Ephesus); the two natures of Christ, human and divine, being united in the one divine person (Chalcedon); transubstantiation (see Chapter 10) to describe how the bread and wine are changed at Mass into the Body and Blood of Christ (Lateran IV); the seven sacraments, Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition (see Chapter 2), and other responses to the Reformation (Trent); and papal infallibility (Vatican I). These conciliar decrees and ex cathedra papal pronouncements form the Extraordinary Magisterium.
Ex cathedra (Latin for “from the chair”) pronouncements from the pope are considered infallible teachings. The only two ex cathedra pronouncements in 2,000 years have been the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception (1854) and the Assumption (1950). When the pope teaches ex cathedra, he’s exercising his universal authority as Supreme Teacher of a doctrine on faith or morals, and he’s incapable of error. Catholics consider the Assumption of Mary and the Immaculate Conception infallible teachings because they involve the solemn, full, and universal papal authority. (See Chapter 17 for more information on Mary, the Immaculate Conception, and the Assumption.)
Unlike governments that separate their executive, legislative, and judicial branches, in the Catholic Church, the pope is all three rolled into one. He’s the chief judge, the chief lawmaker, and the commander in chief all at the same time. That’s why the triple crown (also known as a tiara or triregnum) was used in papal coronations — to symbolize his three-fold authority and that he’s higher in dignity and authority than a king (one crown) or even an emperor (double crown). (Pope St. Paul VI was the last pope to wear the tiara. It’s a matter of personal choice and preference now.)
The Ordinary Magisterium
The second way that an infallible teaching is taught to Catholics is through the Ordinary Magisterium, which is the more common and typical manner, hence the reason why it’s called ordinary. This teaching of the popes is consistent, constant, and universal through their various documents, letters, papal encyclicals, decrees, and so on. It’s never a new doctrine but rather one that has been taught ubique, semper et ab omnibus (Latin for “everywhere, always and by all”). In other words, when the pope reinforces, reiterates, or restates the consistent teaching of his predecessors and of the bishops united with him around the world, that’s considered the Ordinary Magisterium and should be treated as infallible doctrine.
When popes write papal documents (anything authored by a pope), the title they use to refer to themselves the most is Servant of the Servants of God (Servus Servorum Dei in Latin). St. Gregory the Great (590–604) was the first pope to use this title. Check out the different types of papal documents from the most solemn on down:
Papal Bulls
Papal Encyclicals
Papal Briefs
Apostolic Exhortations
Apostolic Constitutions
Apostolic Letters
Motu Proprios
Prior to the Second Vatican Council (1962–65), more commonly known as Vatican II, the type of papal document the pope chose determined how much authority he intended to exercise. (See Chapter 10 for more on Vatican II.) The preceding list indicates the order of authority that various papal documents traditionally had. For example, the lowest level was the Motu Proprio, which is a Latin phrase meaning “of his own initiative.” Somewhat like an international memo, it’s a short papal letter granting a dispensation or making a modification applying to the whole world but on a disciplinary matter only, such as an issue that has nothing to do with doctrine. An example of Motu Proprio was when St. John Paul II granted permission to celebrate the Tridentine Mass (the order and structure of the Mass as it was celebrated between the Council of Trent and Vatican II). On the other hand, Papal Bulls were considered the highest authority.
Since Vatican II, however, the content and context of the document determine the degree of authority and not just the type of papal document. If the pope intends to definitively teach the universal Church on a matter of faith or morals, then he is expressing his supreme authority as head of the Church. When St. John Paul II issued his Apostolic Letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis in 1994, he officially declared that the Catholic Church has no power to ordain women. (See Chapter 14 for more on the role of women in the Church.) Ordinatio Sacerdotalis was not an ex cathedra papal statement, but it’s part of the Ordinary Magisterium, and thus, according to the Prefect for the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, the teaching is infallible. The Cardinal Prefect is the pope’s watchdog to investigate all suspected cases of heresy (false teaching) and to explain official church dogma.
Papal encyclicals are letters addressed to the world on contemporary issues and concerns. Encyclical comes from the Latin word for “circular,” because these documents are meant to circulate around the world. The name of each letter consists of the first two words of the letter in Latin, because every official document coming from the Vatican is still written in Latin. Encyclicals aren’t ex cathedra pronouncements. Some examples of popes who put encyclicals to good use include the following:
Leo XIII wrote Rerum Novarum in 1891, which discusses capital and labor. It defends private property and business, as well as the right of workers to form trade unions and guilds.
St. Paul VI presented the Church’s teaching on abortion and artificial contraception in Humanae Vitae in 1968. It’s not an ex cathedra statement, but Humanae Vitae is a part of the constant, consistent, and universal teachings of the popes and bishops over the ages. (For more about the church’s stand on artificial contraception, as well as other sticky issues, turn to Chapter 14.)
St. John Paul II wrote Laborem Exercens in 1981 on human work; Veritatis Splendor in 1993 on the Natural Moral Law; Evangelium Vitae in 1995 on the dignity, sanctity, and inviolability of human life and the things that threaten it, such as abortion, euthanasia, and the death penalty; and Fides et Ratio in 1998 on the compatibility of faith and reason.
Benedict XVI’s first encyclical was Deus Caritas Est (2005) on the biblical passage that “God is Love.” It explains that divine love and human love are based on the same premise: All love must be both “give and take,” sacrificial and possessive.
Francis’s first encyclical was Lumen Fidei (2013) on the Light of Faith. It was begun by Benedict XVI but finished by Francis and completes the trilogy of the three supernatural virtues, Faith, Hope, and Love, the last two having been previously done by Benedict XVI.
Encyclicals are the routine, day-to-day, consistent teaching of the Ordinary Magisterium, which is equally infallible when it concerns faith and morals and reiterates the constant, consistent, and universal teaching of the popes and bishops. Their content requires religious submission of mind and will of faithful Catholics around the world. So-called dissent from papal teaching in encyclicals isn’t part of Catholic belief. The Catholic faithful willfully