Mike Rings, Clare Whitehead, Pam Walker and Chris Cebra, have had an influence by their mentorship, coaching, teaching, and supporting me in all of my endeavors. If it were not for their guidance and coaching, I am certain that I would not have developed my professional interest or knowledge that has positioned me where I am today.
We've done much of the final editing for this new edition during a global pandemic, and there have been many pitfalls, challenges, and unexpected hurdles. During the production, at least three of the authors have lost loved ones. Some endured days without utilities due to unprecedentedly severe and peculiar weather patterns leading to failing power grids. Many of us in academia had to completely restructure our veterinary courses as we learned how to deliver our educational content online, and others had to learn to adjust their clinical practice to a “new normal.” We had to juggle efforts on this text with our daily lives, clinical duties, and our responsibilities to our “day jobs.” It has not been an easy task, and although many obstacles seemed insurmountable, we persevered.
It is my desire that this edition builds positively upon the previous editions of this text and serves as a useful reference for veterinarians, veterinary students, and camelid enthusiasts. Though we have made our best effort at improving accuracy and the evidence‐based medicine included here, we are still learning and undoubtedly there is more yet to discover about these unique animals. I would like to once again give credit to Dr Fowler for establishing the framework for this book and thank all of the many others who contributed substantially to these pages.
“Challenges may come, but you can overcome them and reach the potential destined for you … Keep on the upward trail” – Murray Fowler, 1999.
Andrew J. Niehaus
About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/niehaus/camelids
The website includes:
Video clips
PowerPoint of figures from the book, per chapter
1 General Biology and Evolution
Kanyon McLean1 and Andrew J. Niehaus2
1 Montgomery Zoo and Mann Wildlife Learning Museum, Montgomery, AL, USA
2 Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Farm Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
The domesticated camelids of the world have had a significant impact on civilizations throughout recorded history. Populations of camels, referred to as Old World Camelids (OWCs), are indigenous to Africa and Asia, while South American camelids (SACs), also called New World Camelids (NWCs), have evolved in the countries along the western mountains of South America. OWCs include the one‐humped (dromedary) camel, the two‐humped (Bactrian) camel and, more recently, the wild Bactrian camel of Mongolia. NWCs include alpacas, llamas, guanacos, and vicuñas. Alpacas and llamas exist only as domestic species, while guanacos and vicuñas are undomesticated. The vast majority of camels alive today are domesticated dromedary camels in Africa and the Middle East and domestic Bactrian camels in Asia. Wild Bactrian camels are considered critically endangered with an estimated population of about 1000 individuals inhabiting a few select geographic areas in Asia [1, 2].
Taxonomy
Though the classification of OWCs has remained consistent, the classification of NWCs has changed frequently over time, and controversy continues regarding their classification. Carl Linnaeus placed the llama, alpaca, and Old World camels in a single genus, Camelus, in 1758. The scientific name for the dromedary camel is Camelus dromedarius (Figure 1.1) and that for the Bactrian camel is Camelus bactrianus (Figure 1.2). The more recently classified wild Bactrian camel of Mongolia is named C. bactrianus ferus (Figure 1.3) [3–6]. More recent taxonomic classifications place SACs into the genera Vicugna and Lama. The most widely accepted nomenclature for SACs is the following: alpacas are classified as Vicugna pacos, vicuñas are classified as Vicugna vicugna, llamas are classified as Lama glama, and guanacos are classified as Lama glama guanicoe . (Table 1.1) More detailed information on taxonomic history is found in earlier editions of this text.
General Biology and Genetics
The karyotype of all camelids is 2n = 74. All SACs have produced fertile hybrids. Dromedary and Bactrian camels also produce fertile crosses. Though less common, it is possible to produce camel – SAC hybrids, however, most experimentation with this hybridization has resulted in non‐viable offspring. Llama – camel crosses are known as camas [7], and alpaca – llama hybrids are known as wari or wakayu [8]. In Israel, a cross between an alpaca male and a dromedary female by artificial insemination produced a stillborn full‐term fetus. One report of a guanaco inseminated with camel semen produced a viable calf [9].
Significant size differences exist among camelid species, though they maintain similar anatomic relationships. Domesticated camelids tend to have a larger body size than their wild ancestors. Though there is overlap, vicuñas tend to have the smallest body size, followed by alpacas, guanacos, and llamas are the largest [10]. Environmental pressures influenced different adaptations of camels from the SACs. The camels completed Pleistocene evolution in a semidesert environment in southern Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa and developed sophisticated adaptations for dealing with heat and dehydration. The SACs became adapted to South American habitats, especially the high‐altitude lands of the Andes.
Figure 1.1 Dromedary camel cow nursing her calf (
Source: Photo courtesy of Dr. Sharon Deem at the Saint Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine
).
Figure 1.2 Bactrian camel.
Camelids are often compared to true ruminants, though distinct differences in gastrointestinal (GI) anatomy and physiology place them in separate phylogenic suborders. Geologic evidence suggests that camelids and ruminants began to diverge near the beginning of the tertiary period from primordial, monogastric species. Camelids have a complex, three‐compartmented stomach. Similar to ruminants, camelids consume fibrous forage and have developed similar foregut fermentation systems by parallel evolution (Chapters 3 and 12). Camelids regurgitate and rechew ingested forage, as do ruminants, however, camelids have more efficient mechanisms than ruminants for extracting protein and energy from poor quality forages [11]. More detail on the differences between camelids and ruminants are found in earlier editions of this text