that helped them to build the biggest system of roads and aqueducts the world has ever seen.
Did the Art World Crash When Rome Fell, or Did It Just Switch Directions?
Art definitely changed course in the West with the exponential rise of Christianity during the last phase of the Roman Empire and in the East and South with the birth and rapid growth of Islam in the seventh and eighth centuries.
Byzantine period (AD 500–AD 1453)
Byzantine art — a marriage of Roman splendor, Greek art styles, and Christian subject matter — flourished in the Eastern Roman Empire after the fall of Rome in AD 476. But Byzantine art is less naturalistic than the Greek and Roman art that inspired it. It points to the hereafter rather than the here and now.
The most popular Byzantine art form was icon painting. Icons (holy images of Jesus, Mary, and the saints) were used in prayer. Byzantine artists also worked in mosaic (pictures made from pieces of cut glass).
Islamic period (seventh century+)
Islamic art and architecture spread across the Near East, North Africa, and Spain following the wave of Islamic conquests between AD 632 and AD 732. Like Moses, Mohammed condemned graven images, so there aren’t many representations of people in Islamic art. Instead, Islamic artists created astoundingly intricate patterns in carpets, manuscripts, and architecture.
Medieval period (500–1400)
Throughout the Middle Ages, art and architecture had a spiritual mission: to direct people’s attention toward God. Churches soared in that direction, and sculpture and paintings pointed the way to paradise. They depicted the sufferings of Christ, the Apostles, martyrs, the Last Judgment, and so on. Humans’ physical features mattered less to medieval artists than their spiritual struggles and aspirations. So they tended to represent people more symbolically than realistically.
High Renaissance (1495–1520) and Mannerism (1530–1580)
During the Renaissance, humankind’s spiritual focus shifted again. You could say that the people of the Renaissance had a double vision: Educated men and women wore mental bifocals so that they could see close up (earthly things) and far away (heaven). With this double vision, Renaissance artists celebrated both humans and God without short-changing either.
The close-up focus allowed realism to make the comeback we call the Renaissance: humans reclaiming their classical (Greek and Roman) heritage (see Chapters 11 and 12).
Baroque period (1600–1750) and Rococo period (1715–1760s)
The Reformation split Christianity down the middle, unleashing a maelstrom of religious wars between Catholics and Protestants and nearly 200 years of intolerance. To recover what lost ground it could, the Catholic Church launched the Counter-Reformation in the middle of the 16th century. One critical Counter-Reformation weapon was religious art that reaffirmed Catholic values while rendering them more people friendly. Baroque saints shed the idealistic luster they had during the Renaissance and began to look like working-class folk — the class the Church was trying to hold on to.
Baroque art and architecture are characterized by grandiose decoration, dramatic lighting, and theatrical gestures that reach out to viewers, mixed with earthy realism. Rococo art dropped the drama of Baroque art and most of the religion while taking Baroque’s ornamental side to extremes.
In the Machine Age, Where Did Art Get Its Power?
Many 18th- and 19th-century artists rejected, criticized, or ignored the Industrial Revolution. Instead of uplifting humankind, industry seemed to demoralize and dehumanize people. Men, women, and children were forced to work 14 hours a day, 6 days a week in urban factories, without benefits or vacations. Factories polluted the cities, alienated people from the soil, and seemed to benefit only those who owned them. This led many artists to turn to nature or the past or to a make-believe Golden Age when life was beautiful and just. It provoked others to try to reform society through their art. Neoclassicism and Romanticism occurred during the Enlightenment and the American, French, and Industrial Revolutions.
Neoclassicism (1765–1830)
Neoclassicism (neo means “new”) looked back to the pure air and refined beauty of the classical era. Often, artists dressed contemporary heroes like George Washington or Voltaire in Roman togas and posed them like Roman statesmen or Olympians. In Neoclassical art, no one sweats or strains; no one’s hair is ever mussed; everything is elegant, balanced, and orderly (see Chapter 16).
Romanticism (late 1700s–early 1800s)
Romantic artists often criticized the Industrial Revolution, championed the rights of the individual, and supported democratic movements and social justice; they opposed slavery and the exploitation of labor in urban factories.
After Romanticism, art is divided into movements rather than periods (see Chapter 3).
The Modern World and the Shattered Mirror
By the beginning of the 20th century, the camera seemed to have a monopoly on realism. That may be one reason painters turned toward abstraction. But it’s not the only reason. Following Cézanne’s example, many artists strove to simplify form (the human body, for example) into its geometrical components; that goal was partly the impetus for Cubism (see Chapter 22). For others, expressing feeling was more important than painting realistic forms. The Fauves expressed emotion with color while simplifying form, and the Expressionists suggested it by distorting form (see Chapter 21 for details).
Responding to modern pressures
Table 1-1 offers a breakdown of some specific art movements that happened in response to modern political, social, and cultural pressures.
TABLE 1-1: Art Movements of the 20th Century
| Stimulus | Responding Art Movement |
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|---|