usually involves routine clinical pathology and dynamic or function tests +/− imaging to localise the organ affected, for example, liver, kidney, pancreas and adrenals.
The location of the problem for patients who are regurgitating is almost always the oesophagus (occasionally the pharynx), whether the cause is primary or secondary GI. Thus, regurgitation is a clinical sign where location is considered first, and then the question is asked, Is this a primary or secondary GI lesion?
Primary GI diseases causing vomiting
Once the lesion has been located within the GI tract, it must now be identified. Biopsy may be appropriate or the type of lesion may be evident by visual inspection (e.g. foreign body).
In the GI tract, as elsewhere, neoplasia and inflammation often look grossly identical, and biopsies should always be taken even if the GI tract looks grossly normal.
Diseases of the stomach
GastritisDietary indiscretionDrug induced, for example, non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)Immune‐mediated inflammatory diseaseInfection, for example, Helicobacter pyloriRarely clinically significant
Gastric foreign bodies
Gastric ulceration (see section below discussing haematemesis)
Gastric neoplasia
Disorders of the pylorusPylorospasmPyloric obstructionCongenital pyloric stenosisChronic hypertrophic gastropathy
Abnormal gastric motility
Intestinal disease
Those intestinal diseases for which vomiting is a predominate clinical feature include the following:
Infectious enteritis, for example, parvovirus, corona virus (diarrhoea will usually also be present)
Dietary indiscretion (diarrhoea often present)
Intestinal obstruction – foreign body and intussusception
Inflammatory bowel disease especially in cats (dogs tend to more commonly present with diarrhoea as the major clinical sign).
The closer the obstruction is to the pylorus, the more frequent and severe the vomiting.
Secondary GI diseases causing vomiting
A large number of secondary GI disorders can cause vomiting. However, most of these can be eliminated with relatively few tests – at least in dogs. Cats are more problematic, especially in the diagnosis of pancreatic and hepatic disease. In Table 3.1, the most important secondary GI disorders are listed with tests that are useful in their diagnosis.
Table 3.1 Secondary gastrointestinal causes of vomiting in cats and dogs.
| Disorder | Clinical pathology that may be useful |
|---|---|
| Pancreatitis | Pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity (PLI), amylase (not in cats), lipase (not in cats), white blood cell (WBC) count, ALP, presence of lipaemic serum |
| Hepatic disease | ALT, ALP, GGT, bile acids, bilirubin, albumin, urea, glucose |
| Renal disease | Urea, creatinine, phosphate, SDMA, urine specific gravity (SG) |
| Hypoadrenocorticism | Na+,K+, urea, cortisol, calcium, glucose |
| Diabetic ketoacidosis | Blood and urine glucose, ketones |
| Toxaemia due to infection | WBC count |
| Hypercalcaemia | Serum Ca2+ (total and ionised) |
| Hypokalaemia/ hyperkalaemia | Serum K+ |
| CNS disease | Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis (possibly) |
| Dirofilariasis (cats) | Heartworm antigen tests (often negative), eosinophil count |
| Lead toxicity | Blood lead and/or urinary delta‐aminolevulinic acid (δ‐ALA) |
| Hyperthyroidism (cats) | Thyroxine (T4) |
You should consult other textbooks to read about specific details of primary and secondary GI diseases causing vomiting and regurgitation.
Haematemesis
Persistent vomiting of fresh blood or vomiting of digested blood (coffee grounds) can be of significant clinical concern. The cause may be primary GI disease or secondary GI disease. Contrary to popular belief, most patients that are vomiting do not have gastric ulceration and do not need to be treated with an anti‐ulcer drug. However, there may be a role for use of drugs that suppress gastric acid secretion (preferably proton‐pump inhibitors) to prevent secondary oesophagitis.
Haematemesis may be the only sign of gastric bleeding, but concurrent melaena is common (see Chapter 12).
Primary GI causes of haematemesis include:
NeoplasiaLymphoma, adenocarcinoma, leiomyoma and leiomyosarcoma
Gastric foreign body
Severe inflammatory disease.
Secondary GI causes of haematemesis include:
Coagulopathy
Secondary GI diseases causing gastric ulcerationNSAIDsHepatic diseaseHypoadrenocorticismGastrinomaMast cell tumour (non‐GI location)TraumaRenal failureSystemic inflammationFor example, pancreatitis, sepsisExtreme exerciseFor example, sled dog racing.
Causes of regurgitation
Table 3.2 Oesphageal disorders causing regurgitation.
| Megaoesophagus | Congenital | |
| Acquired – primary GIAcquired – secondary GI | IdiopathicPolymyositisMyasthenia gravisPolyneuritisHypothyroidismHypoadrenocorticismNeoplastic neuromyopathyLead toxicityTick paralysis (Ioxodes holycyclus) | |
| External compression | Persistent right aortic arch | |
| Mediastinal lymphoma | ||
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