keeping,
4 Fidelity and loyalty,
5 Fairness,
6 Caring for others,
7 Respect for others,
8 Responsible citizenship,
9 Pursuit of excellence, and
10 Accountability. (Josephson 2020)
Embracing these values and choosing to do the right thing “takes principled action as well as character worthy of human capacity” (Anderson 1996, 71). A brief primer on moral philosophy – the principles of right and wrong that govern human behavior and guide moral action – offers three traditional approaches to moral thinking. These are the ethics of care, consequentialism, and deontology, also referred to as “care‐based,” “end‐based,” and “rule‐based” philosophies (Kidder 1995, 23–25).
Care‐based ethics advances the “well‐being of care‐givers and care‐receivers in a network of social relations” (Sander‐Staudt 2011, 1). It is often associated with the principle of the Golden Rule found in many of the world's religions, treating others as one wishes to be treated (Kidder 1995), with respect, compassion, and fairness. Its tenets are guided by self‐love and love of humankind (Anderson 1996).
End‐based consequentialism focuses on acting morally to produce the right results (Haines 2006). For Greek philosopher and teleologist Aristotle (384–322 BC), whose virtue ethics underscores the importance of character as fundamental to a moral life, practicing beneficence and justice is paramount (Anderson 1996). For English philosophers Jeremy Benthan (1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), who promoted a form of consequentialism called utilitarianism, the best overall outcome is one that “maximizes utility” and produces the greatest amount of good for the greatest number (Nathanson 2014, 3).
Rule‐based deontology addresses the concept of duty and acting morally in accordance with universal and impartial “rules that everyone could and should obey” (Jankowiak 2019, 25). German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) expresses this theory as the categorical imperative.
These three principles can be applied to the situation faced by medical professionals in 2020 and 2021 when COVID‐19 treatments were hampered by shortages of personnel, equipment, and medication. Doctors guided by care‐based ethics would administer first to the sickest patients while offering compassion to the others. Doctors guided by consequentialism and reasoning that younger patients would have a better chance of surviving would treat them before older patients. Doctors driven by rules might apply a first‐come, first‐served approach to care. In the case of actual guidelines issued during the pandemic, medical ethicists favored the utilitarian principle of maximum benefit (Emanuel et al. 2020).
Professional Ethics
The Association of Fundraising Professionals (AFP) fosters ethical and best practices for fundraisers through education, training, advocacy, and research. Its “Code of Ethical Standards” guides the profession today in ways that engender trust (https://afpglobal.org/ethicsmain/code-ethical-standards). The “Donor Bill of Rights” respects those whose philanthropy makes the voluntary sector viable (https://afpglobal.org/donor-bill-rights).
Fundraisers must embrace these professional principles and think critically and carefully about ethical issues. As the “consciences of the philanthropic community,” fundraisers must bring ethical courage to their work and “create communities of moral deliberation” in the organizations they serve (Pribbenow 2013, 8 and 13). While codes are guides to professional behavior (Rosen 2005), ethical fundraising is more about a right way to act than do's and don'ts. According to a 2011 AFP survey, those who routinely practice ethical fundraising share similar traits. They build trusted relationships by being honest and transparent in their dealings and communications. They are accountable for their behavior, as well as the behavior of their organizations. They embrace AFP's codes and model ethical practice, even when it is uncomfortable or unpopular. They take seriously their roles as stewards of the public trust (Pribbenow 2013).
Ethical Behavior
In Obedience to the Unenforceable, a report on ethical practice for nonprofit and philanthropic organizations, Independent Sector (IS) (2002) clarifies three types of ethical behavior that guide nonprofits: complying with applicable laws; doing the right thing, even in the face of hardship or discomfort; and choosing the ethical path between competing goods or conflicting values. The last, called ethical dilemmas, are the most difficult situations to address, often pitting core values against one another, so there is no easy right answer. There are commonly four types of “right versus right” ethical paradigms: truth versus loyalty, individual versus community, short‐term versus long‐term, and justice versus mercy (Kidder 1995, 17–18).
IS offers guidance to nonprofits in maintaining an ethical culture by adopting these shared values:
Commitment beyond self, service to the public at the core of civil society.
Obedience of the laws, a fundamental responsibility of stewardship, including those governing tax‐exempt philanthropic and voluntary organizations.
Commitment beyond the law, or “obedience to the unenforceable,” the higher calling of personal responsibility to society accepted by nonprofit professionals. This phrase is taken from a speech given by British barrister and judge Lord John Fletcher Moulton (1844–1921).
Commitment to the public good, requiring “those who presume to serve the public good … [to] assume a public trust” (Independent Sector 2002, 7).
Respect for the worth and dignity of individuals, a promise that all voluntary sector staff and volunteers must fulfill.
Tolerance, diversity, and social justice, reflecting civil society's rich heritage and the fundamental protections afforded to individuals in a democracy.
Accountability to the public, a central responsibility of public benefit organizations.
Openness and honesty, essential qualities of organizations that seek and utilize public or private funds to serve public purposes.
Responsible stewardship of resources, a duty of care governance requirement that nonprofit organizations vow to uphold (Independent Sector 2002).
IS encourages nonprofit leaders, especially fundraisers, to integrate these commitments into their work. To strengthen transparency, governance, and ethical standards, IS (2015) developed Principles for Good Governance and Ethical Practice, a resource for organizations to establish or improve policies and procedures.
Attitude and language matter. Fundraisers are not salespeople and donors are not targets. The dignified process of inviting someone to give is not hitting them up. Philanthropy is a voluntary act, so guilt and undue pressure have no place in communications between fundraisers and donors (MacQuillan 2016). And organizations and beneficiaries are not beggars, but active agents in addressing community needs.
Conducting oneself with integrity, demonstrating moral character, and exercising good judgment can help to avoid ethical issues common in nonprofits (Burchill 2006; Rhode and Packel 2009; Rosen 2019). These include:
1 Conflicts of interest, when trustees, executives, or fundraisers benefit materially from insider relationships to their organizations, such as contracting services from a board member's business, or when fundraisers compromise professional relationships by accepting personal gifts from donors. Because engendering trust is crucial, nonprofits and fundraisers should avoid even the appearance of conflicts of interest.
2 Accountability and reporting, when solicitation materials