meta‐analyses of prospective cohort studies. Mayo Clinic Proc. Innov. Qual. Outcomes 3 (1): 52–69.
28 Livesey, G., Taylor, R., Livesey, H.F. et al. (2019). Dietary glycemic index and load and the risk of type 2 diabetes: assessment of causal relations. Nutrients 11 (6).
29 Lordan, R., Tsoupras, A., Mitra, B., and Zabetakis, I. (2018). Dairy fats and cardiovascular disease: do we really need to be concerned? Foods 7 (3): 29.
30 Ludwig, D.S., Willett, W.C., Volek, J.S. et al. (2018). Dietary fat: from foe to friend? Science 362 (6416): 764–770. doi: 10.1126/science.aau2096.
31 Magkos, F. and Sidossis, L.S. (2008). Exercise and insulin sensitivity – where do we stand? You'd better run! Eur. J. Endocrinol. 4 (1): 22–25.
32 Malek, A.M., Newman, J.C., Hunt, K.J. et al. (2019). Dietary sources of sugars and calories. Nutr. Today 54 (6): 296–304.
33 Medina‐Remon, A., Kirwan, R., Lamuela‐Raventos, R.M., and Estruch, R. (2018). Dietary patterns and the risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, asthma, and neurodegenerative diseases. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 58 (2): 262–296.
34 Micha, R., Khatibzadeh, S., Shi, P. et al. (2014). Global, regional, and national consumption levels of dietary fats and oils in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis including 266 country‐specific nutrition surveys. Br. Med. J. 348: g2272.
35 Mirmiran, P., Amirhamidi, Z., Ejtahed, H.S. et al. (2017). Relationship between diet and non‐alcoholic fatty liver disease: a review article. Iran. J. Public Health 46 (8): 1007–1017.
36 Nassis, G.P., Papantakou, K., Skenderi, K. et al. (2005). Aerobic exercise training improves insulin sensitivity without changes in body weight, body fat, adiponectin, and inflammatory markers in overweight and obese girls. Metabolism 54 (11): 1472–1479.
37 Nassis, G.P., Psarra, G., and Sidossis, L.S. (2005). Central and total adiposity are lower in overweight and obese children with high cardiorespiratory fitness. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 59 (1): 137–141.
38 Oh, K., Hu, F.B., Manson, J.E. et al. (2005). Dietary fat intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women: 20 years of follow‐up of the Nurses' Health Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 161 (7): 672–679.
39 Panagiotakos, D., Pitsavos, C., Chrysohoou, C. et al. (2009). Dietary patterns and 5‐year incidence of cardiovascular disease: a multivariate analysis of the ATTICA study. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 19 (4): 253–263.
40 Pervanidou, P. and Chrousos, G.P. (2018). Early‐life stress: from neuroendocrine mechanisms to stress‐related disorders. Horm. Res. Paediatr. 89 (5): 372–379. doi: 10.1159/000488468.
41 Pitsavos, C., Panagiotakos, D.B., Tambalis, K.D. et al. (2009). Resistance exercise plus to aerobic activities is associated with better lipids' profile among healthy individuals: the ATTICA study. QJM 102 (9): 609–616.
42 Prieto, M.S. and Kales, S.N. (2016). Dietary, lifestyle behaviors and obesity: towards modern science. J. Obes. Eat. Disord. 2 (2): 1–2.
43 Redman, L.M., Smith, S.R., Burton, J.H. et al. (2018). Metabolic slowing and reduced oxidative damage with sustained caloric restriction support the rate of living and oxidative damage theories of aging. Cell Metab. 27 (4): 805–815. e4.
44 Reynolds, A., Mann, J., Cummings, J. et al. (2019). Carbohydrate quality and human health: a series of systematic reviews and meta‐analyses. Lancet 393 (10170): 434–445.
45 Romieu, I., Dossus, L., Barquera, S. et al. (2017). Energy balance and obesity: what are the main drivers? Cancer Causes Control 28 (3): 247–258.
46 Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition. (2019). Saturated fats and health. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/814995/SACN_report_on_saturated_fat_and_health.pdf.
47 Seidelmann, S.B., Claggett, B., Cheng, S. et al. (2018). Dietary carbohydrate intake and mortality: a prospective cohort study and meta‐analysis. Lancet Public Health 3 (9): e419–e428.
48 Stefanaki, C., Pervanidou, P., Boschiero, D. et al. (2018). Chronic stress and body composition disorders: implications for health and disease. Hormones (Athens) 17 (1): 33–43. doi: 10.1007/s42000‐018‐0023‐7.
49 Tambalis, K., Panagiotakos, D.B., Kavouras, S.A., and Sidossis, L.S. (2009). Responses of blood lipids to aerobic, resistance, and combined aerobic with resistance exercise training: a systematic review of current evidence. Angiology 60 (5): 614–632.
50 Temple, N.J. (2018). Fat, sugar, whole grains and heart disease: 50 years of confusion. Nutrients 10 (1): 39.
51 Tobi, E.W., Lumey, L.H., Talens, R.P. et al. (2009). DNA methylation differences after exposure to prenatal famine are common and timing‐ and sex‐specific. Hum. Mol. Genet. 18 (21): 4046–4053.
52 Tsekouras, Y.E., Magkos, F., Kellas, Y. et al. (2008). High‐intensity interval aerobic training reduces hepatic very low‐density lipoprotein‐triglyceride secretion rate in men. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 295 (4): E851–E858.
53 Tsekouras, Y.E., Yanni, A.E., Bougatsas, D. et al. (2007). A single bout of brisk walking increases basal very low‐density lipoprotein triacylglycerol clearance in young men. Metabolism 56 (8): 1037–1043.
54 Tsigos, C., Kyrou, I., Kassi, E., and Chrousos, G.P. (2000). Stress: endocrine physiology and pathophysiology. In K.R. Feingold, B. Anawalt, A. Boyce, G. Chrousos, W.W. de Herder, K. Dhatariya, K. Dungan, A. Grossman, J.M. Hershman, J. Hofland, S. Kalra, G. Kaltsas, C. Koch, P. Kopp, M. Korbonits, C.S. Kovacs, W. Kuohung, B. Laferrere, E.A. McGee, R. McLachlan, J.E. Morley, M. New, J. Purnell, R. Sahay, F. Singer, C.A. Stratakis, D.L. Trence & D.P. Wilson (Eds.), Endotext. South Dartmouth, MA: MDText.com, Inc.
55 World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. (2018). Recommendations and public health and policy implications: continuous update project report. World Cancer Research Fund. https://www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Recommendations.pdf.
56 World Health Organization. (2018). WHO plan to eliminate industrially produced trans‐fatty acids from global food supply. https://www.who.int/news/item/14‐05‐2018‐who‐plan‐to‐eliminate‐industrially‐produced‐trans‐fatty‐acids‐from‐global‐food‐supply.
57 Yang, Q., Zhang, Z., Gregg, E.W. et al. (2014). Added sugar intake and cardiovascular diseases mortality among US adults. JAMA Intern. Med. 174 (4): 516–524.
58 Yip, C.S.C., Lam, W., and Fielding, R. (2018). A summary of meat intakes and health burdens. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 72 (1): 18–29.
59 Zeraatkar, D., Johnston, B.C., Bartoszko, J. et al. (2019). Effect of lower versus higher red meat intake on cardiometabolic and cancer outcomes: a systematic review of randomized trials. Ann. Intern. Med. 171 (10): 721–731.
60 Zheng, Y., Li, Y., Satija, A. et al. (2019). Association of changes in red meat consumption with total and cause specific mortality among US women and men: two prospective cohort studies. Br. Med. J. 365: l2110.
CHAPTER 4 Characteristics and Principles of a Healthy Lifestyle
A strong body of evidence support that chronic diseases can be prevented if individuals adhere to healthy lifestyle behaviors. The term healthy lifestyle is used frequently in scientific literature, but its meaning may vary considerably. It may refer only to the avoidance of bad habits like smoking (preventive orientation), but it may also refer to behaviors that affect mostly the physical aspect of health (preventive and promotive orientation). It may also entail the broader meaning that includes behaviors that affect overall health (holistic, wellness‐enhancing orientation). In