classical times, however, friendship was considered a school of virtue and regarded as integral to living the best life possible. Friendly civic relations were recognized as necessary for the good and just society. Friendship was so central to moral philosophy that Aristotle devoted two books of his Nicomachean Ethics to this topic. In the ancient Hebrew texts relationships of mutuality and friendship are also an important concern. The language of reciprocity in the writings of prophets and reformers, including the condemnation of distorted reciprocity, indicates concern for what has elsewhere been described as civic friendship. Friendship was celebrated at diverse tables in the Jesus movement, leading to the accusation by outsiders that Jesus was a friend of disreputable groups.9
Subsequently, a body of writing developed that interpreted Christian love as the love of friendship. This literature flourished in Western Europe between the ninth and twelfth centuries. Friendship lost its prominence within spiritual writings after about 1180.10 It is likely that the twelfth century synthesis of classical and Christian perspectives contributed to monastic communities becoming a “garden of friends” whose existence transformed the world beyond their walls.11 This season of synthesis was followed by a flight from friendship and its celebration.
In recent years there has been a modest renewal of scholarly attention to friendship among anthropologists, political scientists, sociologists, philosophers, and theologians. Various scholars have revisited and sought to recover the classical concept of “friends as fellow-citizens,” and of “fellow-citizens as friends.”12 In theological spheres, new insights into friendship have emerged through the experience of solidarity in liberation struggles, from a variety of feminist theological writings, and from Trinitarian theologians. However, a comprehensive theology of friendship has not yet been developed and Christian communities have not responded adequately to contemporary cultural concerns regarding relationality.
As a parent, teacher, pastor, and theologian I consider friendship important for all parents, teachers, pastors, and theologians to pay attention to and to cultivate. I have come to recognize friendship as an important formative relationship that, along with being a source of joy and delight, nurtures skills for living in community with others and provides an analogy for citizenship.
Building on this revived interest in friendship, and with a strong conviction of its significance and potential, I seek to develop a practical theology of friendship that draws on contemporary, Indigenous, biblical, classical, patristic, and medieval sources in identifying practices and understandings that contribute to personal and civic dimensions of friendship. A practical theology of friendship has the potential to shape the social and theological imagination in positive and constructive ways, thus contributing to authentic friendship in contemporary communities.
Practical Theology
Theology has never been a solely academic pursuit. Rather, it has always involved “the work of the people” turning to, responding to, and even arguing with God in various contexts for diverse purposes.13 Recognizing theology as an embodied practice, practical theology in its broadest sense seeks to facilitate the goal of living faithfully in the present “on behalf of God’s future.”14
Practical theology also refers to a method of understanding or analyzing theology in practice and to a curricular area in theological education. Finally, practical theology refers to an academic discipline pursued by scholars to sustain and support the first three understandings.15 These four facets, identified by practical theologian Bonnie Miller-McLemore, are of course interdependent, as exemplified by this research. My research takes place within the academic discipline of practical theology, makes use of practical theology methodology, and seeks to contribute to the lived expression of faith in the present and on behalf of God’s future, in and through authentic friendship.
The term practical theology has been used interchangeably with pastoral theology. Practical theology is generally understood to have a broader focus, which includes matters of importance both in and beyond the church. The scope of this field includes shaping social transformation and public policy, along with other aspects of the church’s engagement with the world.16 Pastoral theology, with its focus on care, is best seen as a valued sub-discipline of practical theology. The embrace of a broader paradigm of practical theology does not diminish concern for personal and communal spirituality.
Ultimately, practical theology is both normatively and eschatologically oriented.17 As well as describing how people live within communities and society, practical theology considers how people may do so “more fully.”18 Moreover, practical theology seeks to reintegrate theology into “the weave and fabric” of life, in such a way that theology becomes a way of life.19 Practical theology is a theological theory of action that emerged as a theory of crisis, contributing to restoration and renewal.20 It considers the reciprocal relationship between theology and everyday life, including how everyday life influences theology and how knowledge of love and love for the divine shape everyday life. The wider aim of practical theology is to “enrich the life of faith for the sake of the world.”21 This research seeks to reflect these understandings of practical theology, as it advocates for the fostering of holistic private-public friendships that contribute to restoration, renewal, and reform.
Practical Wisdom, Practices, and the Social Imagination
Practical theology draws on the academic turn to practical philosophy and the importance of phronesis (practical wisdom), based on the conviction that critical reflection about the goals of human actions is both possible and necessary. The rebirth of practical philosophy is designed to demonstrate this conviction, to question the dominance of the more theoretical forms of reason, and to secure a stronger place for practical reason within the academy.22 While practical theology may draw on Aristotelian philosophy, it must not be limited by exclusive Aristotelian understandings of the greater good, but rather be enriched by the compassionate, redemptive, and liberating themes of biblical, Black, and Indigenous phronesis.23
Hans-Georg Gadamer depicts a strong relationship between understanding and phronesis.24 The application of knowledge and wisdom is a primary concern in both hermeneutical conversation and moral judgment. Understanding may be construed as a “moral conversation” with a text or historic witness that is shaped by practical concerns emerging from current situations.25 Understanding and practical wisdom are intertwined; they interpenetrate and overlap. One way in which this focus on practical wisdom is evident within this research is in the focus on practices.
The concept of practices provides a way of thinking about the close relationship between thinking and doing. However, scholars from various academic backgrounds use the word practice in diverse ways. For some,