cues (the cue given by the trainer versus the cue given by the new person). To put it simply, stimulus generalization occurs when an animal responds similarly to different stimuli, whereas stimulus discrimination occurs when an animal responds differently to different stimuli. The extent to which an organism generalizes or discriminates between stimuli is indicative of varying degrees of stimulus control (Cooper et al. 2007).
Animals can learn to discriminate or generalize very subtle features of a stimulus. Nagasawa et al. (2011) demonstrated this aspect of discrimination and generalization with dogs. In their study, dogs were presented two pictures: one of their owner’s smiling face and one of their owner’s neutral face. Touching the smiling picture resulted in a reinforcer, whereas touching the neutral face did not. The dogs learned to choose the smiling picture of their owner most often, meaning that they learned to discriminate between the two pictures. When presented with a smiling and neutral picture of an unfamiliar person, dogs responded similarly in that they chose the smiling face most of the time. The dogs generalized to pictures of novel individuals. Interestingly, though, the dogs were only successful in generalizing their responses to pictures of novel individuals of the same sex as their owner. Since they only learned the discrimination task with one sex, they discriminated between sexes.
The processes of discrimination and generalization are complex; generalization more readily occurs when two stimuli are similar, whereas discrimination readily occurs when two stimuli are very different. In Nagasawa et al.’s (2011) study, the pictures of the smiling face and neutral face were very different, which helped the dogs learn to discriminate between them. The pictures of their owner and another person of the same sex were similar enough that the dogs were able to generalize across those stimuli and choose the smiling face. However, the pictures of their owner and another person of a different sex were distinct enough that generalization did not occur.
3.5 Conclusions
Though learning might seem like a complex topic, understanding the processes that take place when an animal learns helps us to develop tools to modify behavior. Observing changes in an animal’s behavior in response to changes in its environment allows us the opportunity to gain insight into the learning history and make changes to the animal’s behavior. Animals are responding to their environment constantly, and often, the environment responds back in one form or another. This interaction between environment and behavior can be understood through the processes of associative and non‐associative learning.
References
1 Alferink, L.A., Crossman, E.K., and Cheney, C.D. (1973). Control of responding by a conditioned reinforcer in the presence of free food. Learn. Behav. 1 (1), 38–40. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03198996.
2 Browne, C.M., Starkey, N.J., Foster, T.M. et al. (2013). Delayed reinforcement—Does it affect learning? J. Vet. Behav. 8 (4): e37–e38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2013.04.039.
3 Cooper J.O., Heron T.E., and Heward W.L. (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
4 Dorey, N.R. and Cox, D.J. (2018). Function matters: A review of terminological differences in applied and basic clicker training research. Peer J. 6: e5621. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5621.
5 Hall, N.J. (2017). Persistence and resistance to extinction in the domestic dog: Basic research and applications to canine training. Behav. Process. 141 (1): 67–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2017.04.001.
6 Harper, D.N. and McLean, A.P. (1992). Resistance to change and the law of effect. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 57 (3): 317–337. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1992.57‐317.
7 Jenkins, H.M. and Stanley, J.C. (1950). Partial reinforcement: A review and critique. Psychol. Bull. 47: 193–234. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0060772.
8 Kelleher, R.T. (1961). Schedules of conditioned reinforcement during experimental extinction. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 4 (1): 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1961.4‐1.
9 Nagasawa, M., Murai, K., Mogi, K. et al. (2011). Dogs can discriminate human smiling faces from blank expressions. Anim. Cogn. 14 (4): 525–533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071‐011‐0386‐5.
10 Poling, A., Weetjens, B.J., Cox, C. et al. (2010). Teaching giant African pouched rats to find landmines: Operant conditioning with real consequences. Behav. Anal. Pract. 3 (2): 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391761.
11 Pryor, K. (1999) Don’t Shoot the Fog. New York: Random House.
12 Skinner, B.F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis. New York: Appleton‐Century‐Crofts.
13 Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan.
14 Skinner, B.F. (1956). A case history in scientific method. Am. Psychol. 11 (5): 221–233.
15 Thrailkil, E.A., Kacelnik, A., Porritt, F. et al. (2016). Increasing the persistence of a heterogeneous behavior chain: Studies of extinction in a rat model of search behavior of working dogs. Behav. Process. 129: 44–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2016.05.009.
16 Udell, M.A.R., Dorey, N.R., and Wynne, C.D.L. (2011). Can your dog read your mind? Understanding the causes of canine perspective taking. Learn. Behav. 39 (4): 289–302. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13420‐011‐0034‐6
17 Wilkenfield, J., Nickel, M., Blakely, E. et al. (1992). Acquisition of lever‐press responding in rats with delayed reinforcement: A comparison of three procedures. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 58 (3): 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1992.58‐431.
18 Williams, B.A. (1994). Conditioned reinforcement: Experimental and theoretical issues. Behav. Anal. 17: 261–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03392675.
19 Zimmerman, J. and Ferster, C.B. (1963). Intermittent punishment of SΔ responding in matching‐to‐sample. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 6: 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1963.6‐349.
4 The Relationship between Physiology and Behavior in Dogs and Cats
Valarie V. Tynes, Colleen S. Koch, and Leslie Sinn
4.1 Introduction
Behavior can change as a result of medical problems or physiological changes. If shelter operations, behavior, and/or medical staff identify behaviors that may have an underlying medical cause, they can be addressed immediately, relieving suffering and increasing the adoptability of the animal. Conversely, if medical conditions that cause or exacerbate problematic behaviors are missed, time may be wasted on training or attempted behavior modification, thus prolonging suffering and time spent in the shelter. At the same time, a complex relationship can exist between physical conditions or disease and behavior, so careful attention must be given to how the two systems (mind and body) affect each other.
4.2 General Concepts of the Relationship between Medical and Behavioral Issues