the use of 2-Amino-4-methylpyridinium 4-hydroxybenzoate (AMPHB) crystalline macro- and nano-scaling for nanotube generation as well as device fabrication, and as an antidiabetic, antifungal and anti-inflammatory therapeutic. Chapter 14 describes a crystalline sample of CPDMDP with base monoclinic system used for computational interaction that acts as a novel base for antidiabetic and antioxidant vaccine, with the presence of pyrazole. Chapter 15 discusses the novel modus operandi of preparing a 4M2NA crystalline sample by evaporation for an antidiabetic–insulin response and an antifungal, anti-inflammation effect with proper optimization. Chapter 16 discusses the use of Mangifera indica–AgO-MIZN of 43 nm used as a vaccine/drug for cancer and bacterial and fungal infections.
Chapter 17 discusses the recently surfaced nanotechnology used to resolve vaccine failures that mainly arise as a result of weak immunogenicity of vaccines, in-vivo instability, the need for multiple jabs, and toxicity. Liposomes, emulsions, polymeric nanoparticles, and graphene oxide nanosheets are some examples of nanovaccines. The chapter more or less summarizes the hopes as well as the gaps that need to be filled in order to achieve the targeted proposals. Chapter 18 implies that the old vaccine strategy fundamentally involves the method of utilizing either inactivated (killed) or live attenuated antigens. Live attenuated vaccines for clinical disease arise from mutated/same genotypes, while nanoparticles with higher surface properties enable them to strengthen the immune system and immunological response. Finally, Chapter 19 comprehensively covers the evolution of nanovaccines and their morphology, carriers used, formulation as well as characterization, and the role of nanovaccines in immunotherapy, with an emphasis on recent advances.
Though development of nanovaccines is still in the infancy stage, with only a few in the early phases of clinical trials, we firmly believe this new generation of vaccines has great potential for the prevention and treatment of many diseases. The information provided in this book further highlights some of the improvements in this span of work, focusing on the factors that limit nanovaccines’ efficiency in optimization. Remarkable strategies to employ assemblies of the various biogenic schemes of nanovaccines are also illustrated in this book. Thus, it may become clear to all readers that vaccinology‐enabled renewable energy technologies are starting to scale up dramatically. As it matures and becomes more cost-effective in the decades to come, bio-nanotechnology could eventually replace the traditional, environmentally unfriendly biomaterials and improve the performance of the biogenic industry through utilization of nanomedicine to manufacture nontoxic, highly durable materials that are cost-effective. To aid in this discovery process, this book provides an overview of key current developments that will direct future research attempts towards utilization of such tailored nanovaccinology that will play an essential role in achieving the desired goal of cheap and efficient vaccine production.
This book also covers the hottest topics based on nanovaccinology applications in the field of therapeutics and nanodetectors as per biomedical applications. It is enhanced by the welcomed contributions of biotechnologists, nanotechnologists, biochemists, medical biologists, pharmacists, materials scientists as well as academicians and research scholars. There is every indication that with appropriate liability and regulation along-side the topics, commercial production of manufactured novel composite materials can be realized. Furthermore, the diverse brilliant innovations and explorations highlighted throughout the entire book can modulate spectroscopic performances with technical excellence in the inter- and cross-multidisciplinary research of high competence.
Lastly, I would like to express my overwhelming gratitude to all the authors and co-authors for their excellent research contributions to this book. I also wish to thank the entire team at Wiley-Scrivener for their consistent support during even the most difficult stages of its publication. I am confident that within a short period of time the eBook series will be very popular in university and institute libraries worldwide, and hopefully will be highly cited in coming years.
Dr. Kaushik Pal May 2022
1
Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development and Constraints
Tahmina Foyez1 and Abu Bin Imran2*
1 Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health and Life Sciences, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
2 Department of Chemistry, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Abstract
Generally, vaccinations are the most efficient prophylactic measures against infectious diseases. Despite the obvious advantages of vaccines, optimizations are required due to poor immunogenicity, instability, toxic effect, and the necessity for multiple dose of a vaccine. Nanotechnology have currently been introduced into vaccination research to address these difficulties. The nanotechnology in vaccine development can improve immune responses. Particle size at the nanoscale is critical for this benefit. Nanoparticles (NPs) used in the formulation of vaccine can improve stability of antigen and immunogenicity while also allowing for targeted distribution. A variety of NPs vaccines have been permitted for human use, with composition, size, shape, and surface qualities. However, obstacles are present because of a lack of proper knowledge of NPs activity in vivo, which can be used as a delivery mechanism to improve antigen processing to boost immunity. We have discussed the recent achievements of nanotechnology in vaccine delivery systems in this chapter, emphasizing the different carriers, such as polymeric NPs, liposomes, emulsions, and carbon-based nanomaterials. The basic knowledge of in vivo biocompatibility, toxicity, and stability of nanotechnology-based vaccine delivery systems has also been discussed.
Keywords: Nanotechnology, nanovaccinology, antigen, antibody, nanoparticles
1.1 Introduction
Currently, infectious diseases are the primary cause of mortality. They are caused by microorganisms like viruses, bacteria, fungi, or other parasites. The human immune system fights and removes foreign invading particles [1, 2]. A vaccine is a living, dead, attenuated, inactivated form of a pathogenic microbe, such as a bacterium or virus, or a component of the pathogenic microbe’s structure, which enhances antibody production in the host body but is incapable of causing severe illness [3]. It develops immunity to control and adjust our immune systems from over-reactivity or underactivity [4, 5]. Vaccines have become an everyday part of life, providing a high-impact benefit to human by preventing or managing a wide range of diseases. Vaccine development has a long and glorious history that started late in the 18th century. Louis Pasteur’s laboratory’s first attempts to vaccine development [6]. The development of vaccines is crucial to the successful control of many deadly diseases. However, efficient preventative and therapeutic vaccinations for totally healing lethal diseases and major microbial infections have yet to be produced. On the other hand, critical challenges that need to be addressed include the design, manufacture, and global distribution of vaccines. To design a vaccine, the antigen, adjuvant, manufacturing method, and delivery strategy should be established. Antigen is a pathogen-derived foreign substance that can elicit an immunological response within the host. A vaccine can be classified into four types based on its antigen: live-attenuated vaccine, inactivated vaccine, subunit vaccine, and peptide-based vaccine. Adjuvants are immunomodulatory agents that are used to boost immune reaction. The first adjuvant, aluminum was designed to boost the production of antibodies, making it an excellent choice for vaccine development [7, 8].