was one of the striking developments of the period, although this is often overlooked because the material remains of these great establishments have survived in rather poor or fragmentary state. Throughout this period the monarchies of Europe continued to strengthen, and the fabulous wealth achieved by the French kings and their relations, such as Jean, Duc de Berry, found an outlet in ambitious artistic commissions.
The Church continued to have a dominant role in education, and it oversaw the development of the universities. There was a growing voice for nominalism, in which the primacy of the senses and the priority of material existence played a leading role, and this philosophy is ideologically linked to a growing naturalism in the visual arts. The softening of the features of carved figures and the rendering of ease of posture show a new sharpness of vision and a willingness to consider the real as well as the ideal aspects of the visual world. The Church’s assertive role included the moral leadership during the Crusades, the raising of armies to occupy the Holy Land. Despite the Crusades, and in part because of them, the medieval period saw the introduction of ideas in philosophy and science from Islamic thinkers, enriching Western thought. The revival of formal types located in the Holy Land, especially as found in the church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, left a lasting mark on medieval and Renaissance architectural iconography.
The later Middle Ages played out against a backdrop of great drama: the Black Death, the plague that destroyed much of the population of Europe, occurred between 1348–1351, and in many places it threw society into upheaval. The ruling feudal class survived, but the labouring class gained some social strength, and the growth of cities and the clout of the bourgeoisie accelerated. This power of the merchant classes was especially strong in Italy, where the city-states flourished and feudal and agricultural power waned, and Italian cities saw the rise of a new secular and urban class of leaders. This was accompanied also by a secularisation of society, which took place in the growth of vernacular Italian literature (Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio) and by explorers and travellers such as Marco Polo. This was the proto-Renaissance that would explode in the fifteenth century into a powerful surge of secular and classical revival ideas.
Renaissance and Baroque Europe: Naturalism and the Revival of Antiquity
The world of Renaissance Europe was dominated by the spirit of humanism. Humanists, that is, scholars interested in the moral and literary values found in ancient Greek and Roman literature, turned their attention to rediscovery of ancient texts, useful not only for the study of good grammar and writing, but newly valued for the content itself, throwing light on the past experiences and thoughts of an elevated, lost civilisation. Renaissance critics regarded the Gothic style as a corruption, and gave us the word Gothic itself, which is historically inaccurate but reflected the belief that those who developed the pointed arch and the “barbarous” accretion of ornaments on the exteriors of the great northern European cathedrals were of the same low calibre as those who had earlier destroyed the Roman Empire.
Following the lead of the humanists themselves, others – businessmen, lawyers, political rulers, and eventually church leaders and clerics – rediscovered the marvels of antiquity. For certain fields of endeavour, such as medical science and painting, there were scant remains from ancient societies, but sculpture was one field where the remains were plentiful, from triumphal arches to sculpture fragments, from sarcophagi to small bronzes. Fifteenth-century sculptors who wanted to turn to antiquity for inspiration could easily do so. To their credit, nearly all Renaissance artists, in whatever medium they worked, tended to re-interpret and re-use material from the past rather than slavishly copy. There were isolated instances where artists repaired (and therefore matched the style of) ancient works, and some artists made close versions of them, as did the aptly named Antico (Pier Jacopo Alari-Bonacolsi), a sculptor in the employ of Isabella d’Este, or as did the young Michelangelo, who made certain youthful pieces close enough to antiquity to deceive connoisseurs. And it was not only antiquity that served as a model: many artists turned to nature itself for inspiration, as recommended by contemporary humanists, and they also benefited from knowledge of other European artistic traditions closer to their time. Many sculptors, in fact, kept alive to some extent the spirit of the Gothic style, as did Luca della Robbia and Andrea del Verrocchio, whose art possesses a sweetness and elegant turn of line that owes something to late Gothic traditions.
The Renaissance was the age of investigation, travel accounts, map-making, history writing, and nature poetry, among other new secular trends, part of what the historian Jacob Burckhardt called the “rediscovery of the world and of Man”. In the sphere of the sculptor, life models, careful observation of human movement, and anatomical study all helped the artistic cause. That a sculptured figure appeared alive and ready to speak was what gained the highest praise from critics of the time. Contemporary humanists recommended that artists look at nature, but look at it in its best forms: sculptors and painters were asked to choose the finest parts of different sources to create a beautiful work of art. Nor should good proportions be overlooked; as in antiquity, the harmony between part and part was an essential goal of a sculptor. Leon Battista Alberti, whose small treatise On Sculpture was the first of its kind since antiquity, set out in detail how to create a finely-proportioned sculptural figure.
There were different phases of the Renaissance, and the kind of classical art that inspired and was re-utilised differed according to the times and the interpreters. In the early Renaissance, the art of Roman republican sculpture was admired. Donatello and Nanni di Banco liked the details and the tough moral character of these prototypes and re-interpreted this in their sculptures. Later in the Renaissance, Michelangelo turned to Hellenistic Greece and its broad, muscular figures and extravagant theatricality. When the Laocoön, one of the prime works of antiquity, was rediscovered in 1506, Michelangelo sketched it, and soon incorporated the serpentine twists and anguished expressions into his Judeo-Christian subject matter. Other Renaissance sculptors were interested in the calm, classical style invented in the fifth century B.C.E. and its later variants from antiquity.
An important aspect of the social and artistic fabric of Renaissance Europe was formed by the papacy. During the later Middle Ages the papacy was divided. This was the Great Schism of the western Church, and at times multiple popes were recognised; the Palais des Papes in Avignon superseded the Vatican in Rome as a papal site. In 1417 the schism was healed and Martin V brought the papacy back to Rome. For centuries, strong papal leaders – Niccolo V, Innocent VIII, Julius II, with Leo X perhaps chief among these as art patrons – became leaders in art patronage. Later in the baroque period this rebuilding would continue, and the popes continued to act like secular rulers, with large incomes to spend on art works, distribute to favourites, or divert to military campaigns. In the fields of sculpture, the bronze doors of St Peter’s by Filarete, the tomb of Innocent VIII by Antonio Pollaiuolo, and the commissioning of medals and other figures by Benvenuto Cellini were part of this papal re-establishment in Renaissance Rome.
The Mannerist style, the stylised art made in Italy in the sixteenth century, was unthinkable without the idealising lead of the high Renaissance masters, but the goals of the Mannerists were somewhat different. Fostered especially by connoisseurs and by courtly patrons, the Mannerist sculptors achieved a cool elegance and sometimes an icy formalism rather different from the more emotive and effectively passionate works from earlier in the sixteenth century. Giambologna experimented with the creation of sculpture meant to be seen from multiple directions, whereas most earlier sculptors had concentrated one’s attention on a single effective viewing point, or a constricted range of viewing stance. Along with the Mannerist artistic attitude went a social attitude that favoured variety, extravagance, inventiveness, grace, and self-consciousness. The autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini, filled with colourful events, bravado, and bragging, is the perfect complement to his artistic career. The line between Mannerism and the high Renaissance is not easy to draw, and the “Mannerists” themselves were not always aware of their place in the artistic scheme later codified by modern art historians. The Mannerists thought that they were surpassing nature with idealising, well-studied and varied figures, goals also shared by earlier artists.
The seventeenth century, the age of the baroque, was marked by a number of social changes: the struggles between religions led to the Counter-Reformation, the spread of Catholic missions around the world, scientific exploration of the heavens and into the particulars known from microscopes, and continued discovery of