Chinese pagoda typology visibly derives from that of the Indian stupa, and it remains one of the chief vehicles of Buddhist ritual throughout the Far East. One of the most ancient of such structures surviving in China, the Great Wild Goose Pagoda was erected during the Tang Dynasty as part of a monastery. It originally had five stories and was about 54 metres tall. This early version, built of rammed earth with a stone facing, collapsed within a few decades, but was rebuilt in 704. The second version, in brick, was damaged by a huge earthquake in 1556, which removed three of its ten stories, leaving it with the current seven. Now 64 metres tall, the pagoda was completely renovated in the Ming Dynasty and again in 1964. The exterior is simple and blocky in appearance, the sheer brick façades relieved only by decorative banding between levels and an articulation of shallow pilasters and small arched openings. The pagoda contains sutras and statuettes of the Buddha brought to China from India. It is related to the Small Wild Goose Pagoda, also in Xi’an.
95. Pancha Ratha (The Five Ratha), Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, c. mid-7th century (India)
96. Cave-temples at Longmen, Luoyang City, Henan Province, 672–675 (China)
97. Elephanta Island, also known as Gharapuri Island, Mumbai harbour, Maharashtra, 9th century and later (India)
98. Daibutsuden (Great Buddha Hall), Todai-ji, Nara, 738 with later rebuildings (Japan)
99. Great Kyz Kala, Merv, 651 (Turkmenistan)
100. Jotab-dong Pagoda, Gyenongsangbuk-do, 750 (South Korea)
101. Pagoda of Fogong Temple, Yingxian, Shanxi Province, 1056 (China)
102. Somapura Mahavihara, also known as Paharpur, Naogaon, c. 800 and later (Bangladesh)
103. Temple complex at Bagan, Bagan, 10th-13th century (Myanmar)
104. Borobudur, Java, c. 800–850 (Indonesia)
Illustrative of the spread of Buddhism from India to Southeast Asia through the initiative of traveling merchants, the great complex at Borobodur is said to be the largest Buddhist temple in the world. With its roughly square base, the shrine’s plan is symmetrical and oriented to the cardinal directions. There are access stairs at the centre of each side. The construction is of dark volcanic stone, built over a low natural hill to reach a height of 31.5 metres. In profile, the shrine comprises a series of terraces that symbolically represent the stages of enlightenment of a Buddhist pilgrim who moves from ignorance to illumination (nirvana). Visitors would walk for several kilometres around the perimeters of the first four tiers in succession. Along the way they would encounter a continuous sequence of low-relief stone friezes illustrating many aspects of Buddhist iconography. The three concentric circular tiers that crown the complex feature 72 small stupas in the form of perforated, bell-shaped domes, each containing a statue of the Buddha. The pinnacle is occupied by the Great Stupa shrine. Once in a neglected state, the entire site was thoroughly restored from 1972 under the auspices of UNESCO.
105. Yunyan Pagoda, also known as Huqiu Tower, Suzhou, 10th century (China)
106. Prambanan temple compound, Java, 850 with later reconstructions (Indonesia)
107. Tomb of the Samanids, Bukhara, c. 940 (Uzbekistan)
108. Brihadishwara Temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, 11th century (India)
109. Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, c. 1050 (India)
110. Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, 1000 (India)
111. Angkor Wat temple complex, Angkor, c. 1120 and later (Cambodia)
One of the largest religious monuments in existence, the temple at Angkor Wat is a source of great national pride – it has appeared on the Cambodian flag since 1863. A great mountain-like assemblage of stone originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, its order and layout are comparable to the earlier Great Stupa at Borobodur. Angkor Wat was begun by King Suryavarman II, who was later buried there. When completed, it became the royal shrine of the Khmer dynasty, though it was eventually converted to Buddhist uses. Like Borobodur, the temple is largely sculptural rather than spatial in conception. On their quest to reach the top, dedicated visitors would cover many kilometres in circumambulating the multiple terraces. After being attacked in 1431, the complex was largely abandoned except by a colony of monks. Few Western visitors made their way to Angkor Wat before its existence was advertised by the French naturalist Henri Mouhot, who came across it in 1860. Astonished by its size and grandeur, Mouhot wrote that Angkor Wat rivalled the Temple of Solomon and was greater than any ruin left by the Greek and Roman civilisations. The complex was cleared and partly reconstructed in the 20th century.
112. Ananda Temple, Bagan, 1091–1105 (Myanmar)
113. Ho-odo (Phoenix Hall), Byodo-in temple, Uji, c. 1053 (Japan)
This famous monument of Japanese Buddhism, located just south of Kyoto, exemplifies the otherworldly sect of Pure Land Buddhism that became popular with the Japanese nobility from the 10th century. It was originally constructed by the wealthy Fujiwara clan as part of a rural villa, but was changed to a private temple in 1052 by Fujiwara no Yorimichi. The Phoenix Hall, or Amida Hall, is the only surviving building from this complex. In plan the layout of the Hall is symmetrical, with extensive L-shaped wings in the form of corridors connecting to pavilions on either side; a third corridor extends to the rear. From above, this configuration suggests a bird in flight, an image further echoed in the upward sweep of its eaves. The major external impression of the Ho-odo is of a huge sheltering roof upheld by a complex system of bracketing. The red and gold colourscheme suggests Chinese prototypes. The magnificent interior of the Hall is focused on a large cult image of Amida Buddha in gilded cypress wood, which was created by the famed sculptor Jocho. The inside of the roof displays statues of Chinese phoenixes. Such opulence was intended to suggest the Pure Land paradise of Buddhist teachings.
114. Beisi Pagoda, Suzhou, 1131–1162 (China)
115. Qutb Minar, Delhi, 1190s and later (India)
116. Great South Gate (Nan-daimon) of Todai-ji, Nara, 1199 (Japan)
This huge wooden gateway serves as the entrance to the monastic complex of Todai-ji, or the Eastern Great Temple. One of the most important religious foundations in the old capital city of Nara, Todai-ji was established by the Emperor Shomu in the 8th century as part of his efforts to involve the Japanese people more directly in Buddhist ritual; this was undertaken in the hope that the resultant display of piety would protect the nation from further disaster. The dominant architectural presence at Todai-ji is the Great Buddha Hall, or Daibutsuden, reputedly the largest wooden building in the world; it houses a colossal bronze image of the Buddha that is 16 metres tall. The roof structure of the Great South Gate, exemplary of the ‘Great Buddha style,’ reflects an evident knowledge of contemporary building practises in Song-dynasty China.