in Cairo to emphasise their control by imposing a stamp on religious edifices. While the conquerors were hailed as supreme caliphs and Muhammad’s assistants by all Sunni or orthodox Muslims, their rule was not absolute: many small mosques in Cairo maintained the traditional design, even after 1516. However, the Ottoman occupation had no effect whatsoever on civil and domestic architecture.
Ablution fountain, 1363.
Sultan Hassan Mosque, Cairo.
Courtyard of the Ibn Tulun Mosque, 876–879.
Cairo.
Jerusalem
The Dome of the Rock, 691–692.
Jerusalem.
The Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, which is similar to the Umar Mosque, is full of splendour. A former Justinian Basilica, it was reconstructed by Abd al-Malik, destroyed by two earthquakes and rebuilt in 785. Saladin restored it in 1187, according to an inscription, and contributed the beautiful minbar that Noureddin made for the Great Mosque of Aleppo. The mosaics which he used to decorate the sanctuary are, in spite of the period when they were done, similar to those of the Qubbat al-Sakhra and as beautiful.
Mecca
The Kaaba in Mecca, which covers the sacred Black Stone that Muslims believe fell from heaven, has a long narrative history. It is said to have been constructed by Adam, then by Seth, then by Abraham, then by the Amalekites, then in the 7th century by the Korachites under the Copt architect Dokun. After it was destroyed by Yazid, Abdallah Ibn Zobeir rebuilt it. It was again destroyed as part of an order from Abd al-Malik, who, shortly after, reconstructed the porticos; it was from this moment that it went down in history.
Medina
The first mosque in Medina seems to have been merely a square area enclosed by a brick wall, partly shaded by a wooden roof supported by plaster-coated palm tree trunks. A courtyard with porticos and the sanctuary at the far end was a reproduction of ancient Semitic and Phoenician sanctuaries, a prototype of portico mosques. This mosque (Masjid en-Nebi, the prophet’s oratory) was constructed in 707 by El-Walid, who decorated Muhammad’s tomb with faience plates. Later destroyed by an earthquake and fire, it was reconstructed under Kaïl-Bey, probably following the old plan. It follows the plan of ancient mosques with parallel naves; it contains Muhammad’s tomb.
Damascus
The Umayyad Mosque, or Great Mosque of Damascus, is an ancient Christian church dedicated to John the Baptist by Theodosius in 379, and restored by his son Arcadius on the site of an ancient temple that stood in the middle of an immense court, and whose porticos are still partly standing. Upon their entry into Damascus, Muslims used this mosque jointly with Christians; however, the Umayyad caliph El-Yalid devoted it entirely to Muslim worship and, to this effect, slightly altered it.
The upper part of the mosque’s interior has Byzantine-style stanchions with very flat surfaces, a frieze made of white marble and gilded rinceaus (ornamental bands of scrolled foliage) that spread against a background of dark marble that actually brings to mind the Qubbat al-Sakhrah. The piers surmounting the column capitals are like truncated pyramids but more massive than those outside. The ceilings of the transept wings before the most recent destructive fire were made of exposed, overhanging beams; semi-cylindrical beams that were connected to the square parts by gilded stalactites (like those in 15th-century Cairo) spanned between a frieze decorated with an inscription in white letters on a blue background, supported by consoles decorated with red, blue and gilded ornaments. This beautiful work undoubtedly dates back to the 15th century renovation, which included the mihrab, the minbar and the mosaics that decorated the lower part of the wall. Nothing, however, was as attractive as the transept’s mosaics, which had been given to Walid by the Greek emperor and laid by Byzantine mosaic workers; they had a green and brown tone on a gilded background. The sheiks of the mosque claimed that these mosaics represented Mecca and Medina. Thanks to this splendid exteriour finish, the Great Mosque of Damascus, viewed from the courtyard, had a magnificent appearance.
As lavishly decorated as Cairo’s mosques were, its palace complexes were equally as stunning; should we agree with the description of historians, the Arab Muslims sought in every way to surpass the extreme luxury of Byzantine emperors.
The Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo
In 868, the Abbasid caliph Motawakkel appointed Ahmed Ibn Tulun governor of Egypt; the following year, Ibn Tulun virtually became independent, bringing Syria and Egypt together under his command. The luxury of his court was magnificent. He abandoned the former El Askar district capital and settled in the outskirts, in El-Kataï, which he founded in 868 and where he built his palace. Makrisi describes its wealth to us: a golden and azure room was decorated with wooden bas-reliefs with life-sized representations of him and his court; human figures were finished in gold, turbans were enhanced with precious stones, clothes were painted and encrusted. His palace was surrounded by those of his dignitaries. He built his mosque on Yachkur hill.
The Ibn Tulun is a mosque with porticos. Around it are groups of accessory buildings with external courtyards, whose layout is reminiscent of ancient Egyptian temples.
The mosque itself is one hundred and twenty metres long and thirty-eight metres wide; there is a small minaret at each corner of the sanctuary: the principal minaret is located outside the mosque. It is built of stone on a square plan. Niches like geminated Arabic arches adorn its side walls. According to Makrisi, the architect of this minaret and the mosque drew inspiration from the model of the Samarra mosque (erected 48 kilometres from Baghdad by the caliph Ouatek ibn Motassim in 542) – although the architecture of this region was made from bricks. This is also true of Mesopotamia, where gypsum was so beautiful and plentiful that the Assyrians used it for their high and bas-reliefs. One finds evidence of the four-column tradition in the use of attached columns surrounding a square or rectangular cluster at the Mosque of Ibn Tulun. The arcades in the naves of Ibn Tulun, where the tympanum between the arches is lightened by an openwork arcade, present a form whose origin is unknown. A similar shape can be found on Sassanian bridge piers at Dizful and Shushtar. Most ornamental details of this mosque are reminiscent of the decoration of Sassanian stars, especially those that are reminiscent of the winged globe of the capitals of Tak-i-Bostan. Finally, lancet windows evocative of the arches of monuments in Amman appeared for the first time in the Ibn Tulun Mosque. Considering the fact that Cairo was not lacking in stones, this preference for bricks clearly resulted from Mesopotamian traditions brought to Cairo during the reign of the Abbasids, which continued to influence architecture during the Shiite Fatimid dynasty.
Cantoned by four columns with Byzantine capitals, the mihrab is decorated with marble mosaics: its dome was made of wood, its framing of enamel mosaic rinceaus above it emerges a small wooden dome, supported by pendentives dating back to the restoration of Sultan Lagin in the 13th century, as well as the wooden mihrab and the openwork covering of the windows. These are not windows set in a plastered truss-frame, but slabs made of small stones cut into simple but very attractive geometric shapes.
The Dome of the Rock, interior dome, 1540–1550.
Jerusalem.
Prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Damascus, 706–715.
Damascus.
Mihrab and minbar of the Great Mosque of Damascus, 706–715.
Damascus.
Minaret of the Great Mosque of Aleppo, early 8th century.
Aleppo.
The Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo
The Al-Azhar Mosque, constructed in Cairo by Jauhar, a Sicilian slave, general in the army of Al Moizz and the first Fatimid sovereign