is obtained.
[1-40]ΔAR = AR(PriorYear) − AR(CurrentYear)
Substituting
ΔAR = 5,550,000 − 6,250,000 = − $700,000
Accounts Receivable increased by $700,000. This is $700,000 of Revenues the Company didn't collect during the period covered by the financial statements and represents a use of cash and hence the negative sign.20 Similarly,
[1-41]ΔInv = Inventory(PriorYear) − Inventory(CurrentYear)
and
ΔInv = 4,350,000 − 5,000,000 = −$650,000
Here the story is the same except this time it's Inventory that increased by $650,000 from the Prior to the Current Year. Cash was used to accumulate the incremental inventory and so this represents another use of cash.
When it comes to changes in the “Liability” Working Capital Accounts the convention is to subtract “Prior Year” from the “Current Year” in order to get the sign correct. The Change in Accounts Payable is calculated with the use of Equation [1-42],
[1-42]ΔAP = AP(CurrentYear) − AP(PriorYear)
and
ΔAP = 2,500,000 − 2,400,000 = +$100,000
Accounts Payable increased by $100,000. This happened because the Company didn't pay some vendors. By not paying vendors, the Company saved $100,000 in cash.
There is no change in the Taxes Payable or Short-Term Debt, so they don't have any impact on Cash. If there had been a change, the analysis would be the same as for the other Working Capital Accounts.
When calculating The Cash Generated or Used by Working Capital, there is need for a convention. A use of Cash (in this case Accounts Receivable and Inventory) is preceded by a negative sign and a Source of Cash is preceded by a plus sign. Applying the proper sign to each term the ΔWC is simply the algebraic sum of all of the Δ's as shown in Equation [1-43].
[1-43]ΔWC = ± ΔAR ± ΔInv ± ΔAP
Substituting the calculated values with the appropriate sign in Equation [1-43] gives the Change in Working Capital.
ΔWC = −700,000 − 650,000 + 100,000 = −$1,250,000
This result agrees with the Change in Working Capital shown in the Cash Flow Statement (Table 1-5).
Table 1-5 Basic Cash Flow Statement
⧉ The Cash Flow Statement
Of the three financial statements, the one that seems to trouble managers the most is the Cash Flow Statement. In the section that follows, a very basic statement is introduced. The purpose is to begin a process that will ultimately result in the reader achieving a high level of comfort with this statement. The reader shouldn't be concerned if everything about the statement isn't crystal clear. It will become increasingly so as the reader progresses through this book.
What Drives Cash Flow and Value?
In the chapters that follow, considerable time is devoted to showing why and how “value” is driven by cash flow and how to quantify it using the discounted cash flow methodology.21 Therefore, if cash flow drives value, the logical question is: What drives cash flow? More importantly, what can a manager do to increase cash flow and thereby increase value?
A careful examination of the Cash Flow Statement shown in Table 1-5 indicates that without Net Income a company doesn't generate any cash from operations other than the cash that can be squeezed out of working capital. Hence it is clear that Net Income drives Cash Flow. Also, since one of management's key tasks is to make investments that result in a future increase in earnings, it would seem logical to add investments to the list of Cash Flow drivers. However, as Table 1-5 indicates, there are other activities that impact cash flow (i.e., changes in working capital, changes in long-term debt, proceeds from the sale of equity, buybacks of equity, and dividends). A better understanding of how all of these activities impact cash flow is facilitated by a careful inspection of Table 1-5.
The next section deals with quantifying these drivers in terms of their relationship to the Income, Balance Sheet, and Cash Flow Statements and this point is intended to briefly expose the reader to the concept of Cash Flow. Everything discussed in the following section is developed in more detail in the chapters that follow, so the reader shouldn't be concerned if some of the concepts aren't crystal clear.
Defining Cash Flow
Inspection of the Cash Flow Statement (Table 1-5) indicates that Cash Flow from Operations (CFfO) is a function of Net Income, Depreciation and Amortization, whereas Cash Flow from Operating Activities (CFfOA) is comprised of Cash Flow from Operations and Changes in Current Assets and Current Liabilities. These relationships are expressed in Equations [1-44] and [1-45]:
[1-44]CFfO = NI + D & A
[1-45]CFfOA = NI + D & A ± ΔCA ± ΔCL
or
[1-46]CFfOA = NI + D & A ± ΔWC
where:
ΔWC = Change in Working Capital = ± ΔCA ± ΔCL
Since NI is the ultimate driver of Cash Flow, all Cash Flow Statements start with the current period's Net Income and then make adjustments for the impact other factors have had on the period's Cash Flow from Operations. The first step in adjusting Net Income for non-cash charges is to add back the Depreciation and Amortization that was incorporated into the Income Statement for the current period.
The reason for this is: D&A represents Depreciation and Amortization of assets purchased and paid for during a prior period and that therefore don't have any current cash impact. It should be noted that even if the asset being depreciated or amortized was purchased during the current year and still not paid for, it's D or A would still be treated as a non-cash item because the amount the Company owes the supplier is accounted for in Accounts Payable and the cash has not left the company.
The role the change in Working Capital plays in CFfOA may not be so obvious. Recall that Working Capital is defined as Current Assets – Current Liabilities, and, as shown in the preceding section, when calculating Cash Flow it is the Change in the Working Capital (ΔWC) accounts (excluding cash) between the current and prior period that is of interest. The discussion on Working Capital showed that when the Change in Current Assets increases between the Current and Prior Year this represents a use of cash and this amount has to be subtracted from CFfOA. Conversely, when the Change in Current Liabilities increases from one year to the next this represents a source of cash and this amount has to be added back to properly reflect the impact this source of cash has on the Cash Flow from Operating Activities.22
Table 1-5 also suggests that CFfOA is available for making investments in the business (Investments), “Financing Activities” (servicing/repaying debt), and paying dividends to shareholders (Dividends Paid). The following relationships can be deduced by working down the Cash Flow Statement.
Cash Flow after Investing Activities (CFaIA):
[1-47]CFaIA = CFfOA − Investments
Cash