30 Millennia of Sculpture. Patrick Bade

came from private citizens and towns rather than only temples. As Rome became the dominant power in the eastern Mediterranean, the interests of both collectors and artists began to shift. The “canons” or rules established by Greek artists of earlier periods no longer constrained what artists could do. This representation of a boy removing a thorn from his foot is an example of these innovations, showing a boy in a mundane, everyday act, yet idealised to suit Roman taste. After the statue’s rediscovery in the Middle Ages it became quite influential, and was widely reproduced during the Renaissance.

      218. Anonymous, The Orator (L’Arringatore), Funerary Statue of Aulus Metellus, 2nd-1st century BCE. Ancient Roman. Bronze, height: 179 cm. Museo Archeologico, Florence.

      219. Anonymous, Roman Aristocrat with Heads of his Ancestors, first quarter of the 1st century BCE. Ancient Roman. Marble. Musei Capitolini, Rome.

      In Roman tradition, figural sculpture was not intended to portray a young, athletic ideal, as it was for the Greeks. Instead, it represented the ideal of Roman society: the wise, elder statesman, patriarch of a family, part of a distinguished lineage. Sculptures were portraits of individuals and included all their flaws – wrinkles, warts, funny noses and knobby knees. This style is called “verism,” meaning truth. It was the dominant style during the Roman Republic. Here, and elderly man holds portrait busts of his ancestors, showing his respect for them, and at the same time drawing attention to his lineage. Such portraits would be prominently displayed in the atrium of the home.

      220. Anonymous, Aphrodite, called the Venus of Arles, end of the 1st century BCE. Ancient Roman. Marble, height: 194 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

      221. Agasias of Ephesus, The Fighting Warrior, called the Borghese Gladiator, c. 100 BCE. Ancient Roman. Marble, height: 199 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

      This Roman copy of a Greek original dating, perhaps, to the 4th century BCE, was rediscovered in the early 17th century and acquired by Cardinal Borghese. A wealthy relative of Pope Paul V, he collected hundreds of statues, many of which were ancient, some of which were contemporary pieces in the style of antiquity. Pieces in the Borghese collection often suffered from unfortunate restorations, though this piece seems to have escaped unmarred. It was later purchased by Napoleon Bonaparte, a relative by marriage of the Borghese family. In that way it made its way to Paris. It was long thought to represent a gladiator, but more recently it has been acknowledged that it could as easily be an athlete or warrior. Much has been made of the ideal musculature and anatomy of the subject. The artist clearly sought to emulate as realistically as possible the form, stance, and sinews of the lunging figure.

      222. Anonymous, Tellus Relief, panel, east façade, Ara Pacis Augustae, 13–9 BCE. Ancient Roman. Marble, height of the enclosure: 6 m. Rome. In situ.

      With the Ara Pacis Augustae, the Emperor Augustus makes a complex ideological statement. The building was a monument to the lasting peace Augustus achieved by securing the borders of the empire. Carved in relief inside and out, it depicted an array of symbols, each signalling a component of his message. Inside the altar, bucrania and fruit-bearing garlands suggested the fecundity of Rome and the perpetuity of Rome’s sacrificial offerings to the gods. Outside, the ceremonial dedication of the monument itself was depicted, with a procession that calls to mind the Parthenon frieze. In addition, the exterior has four panels with mythological scenes. Like the procession, it is done in the classicising style of Greek art, adopted by Augustus to suggest a long historical basis for his rule of Rome, and also to call to mind democratic ideals, belying his imperial authority. In this panel, the central female figure probably represents Tellus, or Mother Earth. She holds two babies, representing the fertility of Rome and of the Roman people. The theme of fertility and fecundity is emphasised by the plants and animals at her feet.