Nicholas had reached the age of thirty. But on 1 November 1894, aged only forty-nine, Alexander III died of kidney disease. His son was still only twenty-six. Following the death of his father, a fearful Nicholas was thrust unprepared into the limelight, reputedly asking, ‘what will become of me and all of Russia?’
Russia in the early twentieth century was a mesh of nationalities and ethnicities – Ukrainian, Georgian, Finnish, Baltic, Armenian, German, and Polish among others. According to the Russian census of 1897, Russians themselves only constituted 44 per cent of the Tsar’s sprawling empire. This was far from a happy conglomeration of nationhood, and the Tsar needed all the mechanisms of State control to maintain command of his subjects.
Imperial Russia
Determined to follow in his father’s footsteps and rule by autocratic means, Nicholas misread the underlying discontent within the empire as the malign influence of the Jew, rather than as genuine grievance. Organizations such as the pro-tsarist Black Hundreds instituted pogroms against the Jews; their communities were forced to settle in the Western reaches of the empire, the Pale of Settlement, where their movements were curtailed.
Nicholas II, c. 1900
Sergei Witte, Russia’s minister of finance and, after 1905, Russia’s first prime minister, was convinced that if Russia was to hold its own against the great European powers, it needed to industrialize. He financed Russia’s industrial and economic progress through large foreign loans, burdening Russia with foreign debt, and heavy indirect taxation. This particularly affected the peasants, as rents rose and grain prices fell; in some areas the effect was devastating – such as the famine in central Volga in 1898–99.
Socialists
In 1898, amidst this turmoil, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RDSRP) emerged as the leading advocates of Marxism and revolution. In 1902 its newest member, Vladimir Lenin, published his pamphlet What Is To Be Done? in which he firmly allied the Party to the interests of the working classes. Only the Party truly understood the needs of the workers, more so than the workers themselves, who, left to their own devices, were concerned only with narrow ambitions, such as improved pay and conditions. It was down to a party of professional revolutionaries, fighting on their behalf, the ‘vanguard of the proletariat’, to bring about wholesale revolution.
Declared illegal, in 1903 the RDSRP had to hold its Second Congress in London where its members quarrelled to the point the Party split into two factions – Bolshevik and Menshevik. (Bolshevik translates as the majority faction, the Mensheviks being the minority; confusingly, the Mensheviks were the majority faction until 1917.) Both factions agreed that the three-century-old Romanov dynasty had to go, but whereas Lenin and the Bolsheviks advocated a core of professional revolutionaries under centralized leadership who would lead workers into revolution, the Mensheviks proposed a more gradual approach. Come the revolution, the Bolsheviks would immediately transfer power to the urban working classes, the dictatorship of the proletariat. The Mensheviks followed the more traditional Marxist thinking that Russia had first to develop as a capitalist economy before being ready to undergo a ‘transition to socialism’, requiring them to work with the Duma. Opposing both, another new party, the Socialist Revolutionaries, believed the route to revolution lay not with the urban working classes but the peasants.
Russo–Japanese War
Russia’s territorial aims in the East risked bringing it into conflict with the ambitions of Japan. On 8 February 1904, the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked Russian ships based at Port Arthur in Manchuria. The resultant war was a disaster for Russia, the supposedly military superpower. The annihilation of the Russian navy in the Tsushima Strait between Korea and southern Japan in May 1905 caused great shock in Russia; the defeat attributed directly to the Tsar. His land armies fared no better. If the Tsar hoped the war would divert attention from unrest at home and stir the patriotic breasts of his subjects, he was much mistaken.
On Sunday, 22 January 1905, the workers of St Petersburg organized a peaceful demonstration to demand political and constitutional reform. Led by an Orthodox priest, Father Georgy Gapon, 150,000 demonstrators, including whole families, marched through the city streets to present a petition to the Tsar. Penned by Gapon, the petition called for a reduction in the working day from eleven to eight hours; the right to strike; the introduction of universal suffrage; and an end to Russia’s on-going and disastrous war with Japan.
Bloody Sunday and the 1905 Russian Revolution
Gapon and his legion of demonstrators were not anti-tsar – indeed, dressed in their Sunday best, families carried icons and portraits of Nicholas II, whom they affectionately called their ‘little father’, and sung hymns and songs proclaiming their support for him. Unbeknownst to the marchers, Nicholas II, forewarned of the demonstration, was not at the Winter Palace, but at his summer residence on the outskirts of the city.
The Tsar’s troops shooting at demonstrators in St Petersburg, Bloody Sunday, 22 January 1905
Arriving at the Palace, the marchers found their way barred by thousands of armed troops who first fired warning shots, then fired directly into the dense crowd. Panic ensued; many were killed or wounded. Cossacks on horseback charged, galloping through the crowds, slashing at people with their sabres. Elsewhere canon was used against the helpless hordes. Estimates vary, but nearly 200 people were killed and many more wounded; the casualties included children.
Bloody Sunday, as the tragedy came to be known, was the moment the Russian people lost their faith in the Tsar. Up to then, there had been economic hardship and discontent; the Tsar ruled by autocracy and he had made use of the Okhrana, his secret police, but on the whole he had the support of the masses. That Sunday, he may not have issued the fatal order to fire but the people held him responsible – and they felt betrayed.
Mutiny on the Battleship Potemkin
Following the defeat at Tsushima during the Russo–Japanese War, mutinies broke out across the armed forces, most notoriously, among the crew of the Battleship Potemkin of the Black Sea Fleet. Morale, already low, coupled with harsh discipline and resentment of Russia’s participation in what was viewed as a pointless war, created a volatile situation. On 27 June 1905 the provision of maggot-infested meat brought the crew to the edge of rebellion. When an officer shot one of the crew, spontaneous mutiny broke out. The mutineers, in turn, killed seven officers. Flying under the red flag of revolution, the sailors sailed the ship that evening to the port of Odessa in the Ukraine. The funeral two days later for their fallen comrades turned into a city-wide protest, resulting in government troops firing into the crowds. As the Potemkin set out to sea, Nicholas II dispatched a number of ships to intercept it to force its surrender. But when the Potemkin declined to surrender, these crews refused to open fire. The Potemkin finally reached Romania where its crew gave up the ship and sought asylum.
The Russo-Japanese War was finally concluded in September 1905 with the Treaty of Portsmouth (in New Hampshire). Despite its humiliating defeat, Russia won an honourable peace due to Sergei Witte, the Tsar’s ex-finance minister. For his efforts, Witte, who had been out of political favour, returned to the fold and was appointed prime minister.
Nicholas II donated large sums of compensation to the victims of Bloody Sunday and their families but it was not enough – this massacre sparked the 1905 Russian Revolution. Workers