with durability, is required.
In finished work—books, fancy goods, maps—the boards are never left exposed to view, but are covered with paper, cloth, or leather. For the inner side of the cover of the book white or coloured paper is frequently used, note-paper of the smallest size being more rarely used.
All marbled or pressed papers are made in one standard size. Besides the end papers for inside of books, a figured paper has of late been made known as "litho printed" for fancy goods. This has been put on the market in the most varied kinds, and also with cloth-like impressions, under the names damask, brocade, and Leipzig end papers. The use of this paper has of late been almost discontinued. The dearest are those printed with designs in gold.
Cloth is more durable than paper, calico being mostly used. This is made in all colours and designs, and was formerly imported from England; but to-day German manufacturers produce a really good article. Plain linen cloth, black, green, or grey, sail cloth, buckram, mole-skin, and beaver are used in the making of account-books.
Silk is used in the bookbindery as end papers in extra work, and also for fancy goods and for lining boxes. The lower grades are seldom used, the better qualities being mostly taken.
To-day velvet is still used in the bindery, chiefly as a covering for portfolios, albums, and addresses, and except for metal clasps remains without ornamentation.
The bookbinder's best material, to which is given the choicest, most expensive, and most painstaking decoration, is leather in its various kinds. Sheep-skin, undyed or split and dyed, serves for school books and other cheap work. Goat-skin and morocco are better kinds, the latter being preferable both as regards price and quality.
Morocco is made from the skin of the goat. Morocco, Levant morocco, and maroquin all denote the same kind. It is a strong, coarse-grained leather imported from the Levant, very tough and durable.
Cape morocco, also called maroquin écrasé, is similar to this. This has a very large, artificially smooth-pressed grain, and hitherto has been higher in price than all other leathers.
Calf (matt or polished) is quite smooth and is only used for fine work. Cowhide is similar to this, but of coarser texture, and is only used for leather goods, portfolios, and albums; for other work in the bindery it is not easily enough worked.
Celluloid is one of the latest materials used for covers. There is evidently a good opening for this in the wholesale manufacturies, stamped goods, and small fancy goods; whilst on the other hand it is of little value to the smaller shops, as it requires machinery for gilding.
C.—Materials for Decorating and Finishing.
For the decoration of our work, either during or after production, there will be a large variety of materials used. Colours are used for the decoration of the cut edges and the cut heads of books. The smooth, uniformly coloured edges are made by a body colour—carmine, scarlet, chrome yellow, silk green, indigo blue. All these colours must be very finely ground before using; the addition of a little paste or dissolved gelatine makes the colour adhere.
For marbling the edges Halfer's marbling colours are now exclusively used; these are to be had ready for use.
Amongst the binders' materials gold takes quite an important place. Leaf-gold in various colours is supplied either by the gold-beater or the wholesale dealer. The colour most used at the present time is orange gold, which is about the same in tint as our current gold coinage. Red gold is somewhat deeper in tone. Green gold and lemon gold are considerably altered by an alloy of silver, and are sold cheaper. Besides gold there are still other leaf-metals used, principally aluminium as a substitute for silver. The latter is still being used, but its unfortunate property of turning black will by-and-by drive it from our workshops. Bronze-leaf is also used for very small jobs in large quantities—makers' names on hat linings, ties, &c. Like silver, it is also liable to rapid oxidization, which takes place with especial rapidity upon leather.
Gold leaf is made in various sizes. The larger size, about 85 mm., is the best to use, whilst the very small sizes are better suited for some work.
As a ground-work for gilt edges, the so-called poliment (Armenian bole) is now generally used. This is cleaned bole, made into a paste, and applied in a solution not too thin.
To make the gold stick to the surface, glair or white of egg is used in all cases. It must be properly diluted according to whether it is to be used for gilt edges or hand-tooling.
Finished work, especially smooth surfaces, is improved by the application of varnish, and is at the same time rendered damp-proof. The so-called bookbinder's or leather varnish is used for leather, cloth, or pressed dark papers. Map varnish, also sold as photographer's varnish, is suitable for light articles, maps, placards, &c. At present, spirit varnish with its quick drying and high surface is almost exclusively used for this purpose. Turpentine varnishes are no longer generally used in bookbinderies; in colour printing copal and amber varnishes are used.
The ready-made headband is an article specially manufactured for the bookbinder. It is fastened on the book in suitable lengths to cover the place where the body and back of books join at head and tail. These headbands are to be had in the most varied styles, according to price and requirement. For ordinary work a cheap cotton is good enough, for fine half-calf bindings a silk headband is used if it is not intended to weave by hand a headband of silk thread for decoration known as a worked headband.
Besides the headband, the book-marker is required, generally a silk braid in bright colours.
It is often necessary to fix clasps to heavy books and also to the smaller hymn-books and prayer-books. These are made to suit all requirements and in various styles by firms making a speciality of this work. The stronger the metal used, the better the clasp and the easier for the worker to handle, as clasps of poorer quality are sometimes spoilt even whilst being fixed to the books.
Imitation metal fastenings are necessary for certain purposes, although their use is now considerably limited. These are the stamped metal rims and corner pieces, which are indispensable in the manufacture of sample cases, &c. The fancy goods with their decorated borders which were so popular at one time have disappeared from the trade; on the other hand, there has been a demand for fancy coloured cords made by twisting cords together.
D.—Tools.
The bookbinder's workshop of to-day presents quite a different aspect from that of our forefathers, even if we go back only 50 years.
The work benches as now found in small leather or jobbing shops stand near wide and lofty windows, each bench having a large drawer at each worker's place. Underneath, between the legs of the bench, there is a board fixed on supports upon which boxes containing colours or any other materials in use are placed within easy reach; and so that the board may not inconvenience the worker sitting in front of it, a semi-circular opening is cut at each worker's place. At each place there is a stool, somewhat higher than an ordinary chair, with three legs and a round flat seat. The legs are connected by strong bars for the worker to rest his feet upon. Shelves for the larger tools are conveniently arranged on the walls, so as not to be a hindrance, but still within easy reach. A few smaller chests with drawers are required for the storing of smaller tools and pieces of metal ornament, &c.
A sufficient number of wooden presses, pressing boards in folio, quarto, and octavo, with the screw key, as well as the press jack belonging thereto, must be conveniently placed. The screw key is used when applying heavy pressure; the press jack serves as a support during certain work which necessitates laying the press on the edge of the bench. If we add a few larger and smaller cutting boards and a few sewing frames, we have completed the list of the large wooden tools.
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