– south of Egypt – had allowed the development of agriculture to flourish since the third century BCE. The Ghana, or local king, and his subjects practiced paganism and idol worship.94 Many natives of the area eventually converted to Islam.
Charlemagne was the owner of many vineyards and a connoisseur of fine wine. One of his favorite vineyards was Corton in Burgundy, which produced a great red wine, or Grand Cru, made of pinot noir. According to legend, Charlemagne’s wife was upset that her husband’s beard bore a perennial red wine stain. So Charlemagne had an area of the vineyard torn out and replanted with white grapes. To this day, Corton Charlemagne, made from Chardonnay, is considered one of the great white wines of the world.
The religion of India is largely based on the Vedas that were composed beginning in the second millennium BCE. As with many scriptures, they were passed on orally until they were written down around 1000 CE. The idea upon which they are based – the unity between all creatures and things – ultimately is a democratic principle. No one can be considered superior to others, as all are part of the essential energy flow of the universe. It was the responsibility of each king to uphold this principle as the basis of justice in his rulings with his subjects. Thus a spiritual view dominated the politics of India as well as the everyday lives of its people. A downside was that occupations were static within families for generations because individual advancement was not seen as being as important as unity with the cosmic whole.95
There also was a warrior class in early India made up of aristocrats and professional soldiers. The Bhagavad-Gita, one of the most holy Sanskrit texts, was written in the fifth century BCE. It portrays a conversation between the warrior Arjuna and his charioteer – the god Krishna – as they are about to go into battle. The main teaching of this text is to have one’s actions guided by the principle of unity with God – or Dharma – as opposed to individual gain or even the victory of one’s tribe or nation. It is fair to say that it differs considerably from any Western battle text. It preaches equality based on unity with the Divine. Yoga – in this context – means practice that leads to the experience of that divine unity.
The man who sees me in everything
and everything within me
will not be lost to me, nor
will I ever be lost to him.
He who is rooted in oneness
realizes that I am
in every being; wherever
he goes, he remains in me.
When he sees all beings as equal
in suffering or in joy
because they are like himself,
that man has grown perfect in yoga.
Ashoka, one of the most famous leaders of early India who lived in the third century BCE, began to extend his rule via harsh warfare and slaughter. He became a pacifist after converting to Buddhism, and his empire crumbled under his descendants. The Gupta dynasty (320-480) was able to unite much of Northern India, and forced numerous tribes under the domination of one umbrella. But defeated rulers were allowed to stay in place which created a weak state vulnerable to attack. By 515, India was overwhelmed by invasions by the Huns and regressed into a collection of weak and smaller states.
Villages in ancient India operated independently and were not dependent on a larger state. The Brahmins (religious leaders) promoted a religion that emphasized the ephemeral quality of life and therefore did not promote literacy, and this view still limits mobility for the poorest classes. The king only was considered a legitimate ruler if he followed the laws outlined in the scriptures, as interpreted by the Brahmins, and revolts would take place when kings became too autocratic.96
Of course these practices prevented India from establishing a strong, central state. The Indian bureaucracies were totally based on birth privilege and not on merit – there was no way for lower castes to advance themselves. There also was no attempt to standardize laws and practices – such as weights and measures – throughout the country until British rule in the nineteenth century.97
Beginning in the tenth century, India experienced a series of invasions that imposed the values of other cultures, such as the Muslims and eventually the British, who while bringing colonialism, introduced the concept of democracy. The Muslim influence lingers today in Northern India and Pakistan, but the Muslim conquerors did not impose the type of central administration that is seen in China and the West. The British occupation, however, imposed a unity of administration, language and custom that lingers to the present. India remains unstable in many ways, with the allegiances among its citizens being largely to their own region rather than the state, which has impeded the building of modern transportation and communication systems.98
At the end of the seventh century the first Heavenly Sovereign, Jito, ruled in Japan. A Buddhist theocracy developed with the Sovereign as head of state.99
Wine drinking in Japan goes back at least 2,000 years.
A funeral ceremony is described by a Chinese envoy to Japan in the first century:
At death they use a coffin with no outer sealing box. Earth is built up like a mound. They observe more than ten days of obsequies, during which time they do not eat meat. The chief mourner wails, and others sing, dance, and drink sake. After interment the family assembles to go into water for purification.
Sake still is used in Japan in many types of ceremonies – weddings, wakes, New Year celebrations, and to mark an occasion like a business arrangement or new home.
A Concise History of Japan, Page 20
The Second Millennium
The Second Millennium – but a bleep in the total time of human existence – produced the greatest progress toward democratic institutions and government of any period, but also has generated the greatest number of wars and casualties.
As this period opened, the western world began to emerge from what many historians consider its darkest period and seemed on the verge of becoming a more civilized society. There was progress toward a greater appreciation of the talents and abilities of the individual, yet persecutions of those who did not fit the mainstream were rampant despite growing proclamations of humanism. As populations expanded, lands became more settled which led to the gradual creation of national borders.
We began to live in larger and more organized societies with more elaborate rules and laws. Yet our tendency toward aggression remained unconquered – in both individuals and nations – as we repeatedly attempted to expand our influence and borders at the expense of others. We promoted models of behavior that preached tolerance, yet were forced to live with the results of the intolerance we practiced.
The democratic ideal – government guided by the recognition of the value of each individual – became established to the greatest extent in Western Europe during this period, then spread to the New World, with less democratic influence the further one goes east. That said, there continued to be conflicting elements between greater and lesser degrees