an existential perspective to volunteer tourism. McDonald and Wilson begin with background on the history, research and paradigm of existentialism. They then tackle the notion of authenticity and the role of volunteer tourism in creating an authentic experience. They claim that volunteer tourism differs from other forms of tourism in that it offers much greater opportunities to negotiate the fundamental conditions of existence, and therefore modes of authenticity. In most forms of tourism, the tourist is chaperoned and protected in the countries, regions and cities they seek to travel through (Olsen, 2002). In contrast, volunteer tourism ideally dissolves the barriers that exist between tourists, locals, culture and the environment. By its very nature it fosters intimacy and closeness when volunteers find themselves working and living alongside their hosts; it affords a degree of mutual exchange and interaction that is uncommon in other forms of tourism (Zahra & McIntosh, 2007).
Chapter 8 closely examines the extremely elusive concept of cross-cultural relations between hosts and guests, both in terms of mainstream and volunteer tourism. Issues of tourist privilege over host communities, the notion of ‘Other-ing’ at both the individual and community level, and methods of resistance implemented by the host community are all addressed. The chapter concludes with research-based recommendations to encourage rich and rewarding cross-cultural experiences for both the volunteer tourist and the local community.
Chapter 9 looks ahead to the potential futures of volunteer tourism. In particular, the economic form, motivations, and planning and policy of volunteer tourism in the future are the focus of this chapter. Volunteer tourism is, in many ways, standing at a crossroads. Will it succumb, like many other forms of tourism, to commodification, or will it resist and become an example of an enlightened, decommodified experience? Next, will the altruism versus self-development debate be put to rest? Finally, will the ground-breaking efforts like those of the International Ecotourism Society (TIES) Voluntourism guidelines (2012) result in a more formalized accreditation process that is accessible to a wide range of volunteer tourism providers, or will accreditation only be financially viable for a few elite volunteer tourism organizations? While these questions cannot yet be answered, they certainly need to come to the forefront of research and policy in volunteer tourism. The goal of this chapter in particular, and the book overall, is to pose these questions and encourage the dialogue to continue across and amongst researchers, volunteer tourism providers, the local communities and volunteer tourists everywhere.
Note
1See for example Gray’s Wanderlust/Sunlust Theory (Mathieson & Wall, 1982), Ross’ consideration of Pull/Push determinants (1994: 21) or even Plog’s (1974) analysis of allocentric and psychocentric personalities in dictating travel behaviour.
2 Alternative Tourism Experiences
Introduction
The original version of this chapter first appeared in Volunteer Tourism: Experiences That Make a Difference, written in 2001. Here, we revisit the major themes concerning alternative tourism experiences in order to demonstrate where volunteer tourism sits on the tourism continuum, and how it contrasts with mass tourism experiences.
Tourism in general has developed as a modern, largely Western endeavour, the analysis of which has evolved from pre-modernism through to postmodernism. Today modern tourism differs considerably from non-Western and historical forms of travel, although it has some similarities (Graburn, 1995). In particular, it has enabled the masses to travel and has been closely related to the emergence of modernity (Cohen, 1995), where consumption is a main tenet. The abundance of the modern Western touristic experiences during this evolution, particularly since the 1980s, has generated a variety of means of researching tourism. Tourism theories and research have emerged from a wide variety of fields and disciplines, including psychology, sociology, geography, ecology and anthropology.
A variety of categories and labels of touristic experiences have emerged within the realm of alternative tourism that reflect both marketing differentiations and ideologically divergent forms of tourism. This includes (but is not limited to) nature, green, special interest, pro-poor, adventure, community-based, war and ecotourism. Many of these forms have caught the imagination of local communities, governments, international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the mainstream tourism industry itself, with a variety of such ‘alternative’ projects being actively promoted, especially in developing countries (Cohen, 1972; R.W. Butler, 1990; McGehee, 2002; Bowden, 2005). These projects have in part been used as definitional examples of alternative tourism in order to clarify the associated issues relating to touristic practices (Priporas & Kamenidou, 2003). However, there is currently debate worldwide concerning the benefits and costs of this type of tourism.
Given the divergent backgrounds and concerns of these individuals and organizations, it is not surprising that no universally agreed upon or widely adopted definition of alternative tourism is to be found, and few explicit links have been made between its different forms. It is not the purpose of this book to pursue the quest for an all-embracing definition of alternative tourism. It is important, however, to recognize that the diversity and range of tourism in fact emphasizes the need for a systematic approach to classifying the varied elements of the tourism experience (Pearce, 1989). In this case, we are focusing on volunteer tourism as the ideal type of alternative tourism.
Alternative Tourism
The approach this book takes places volunteer tourism firmly within the sphere of alternative tourism, all the while recognizing that this perspective is currently being heavily debated within the literature (Butcher, 2006; Coghlan, 2006; Tomazos & Butler, 2009a; Butcher, 2011). Some argue that there are examples of volunteer tourism in virtually every form of tourism, from mass to alternative (Butcher, 2011). Coghlan (2006) argues that while some see volunteer tourism as a distinct sector from ecotourism, she sees it as an extension of eco-tourism (Coghlan, 2006). Tomazos and Butler (2009b) take yet another perspective, suggesting that, as with ecotourism, volunteer tourism has moved into a niche of mainstream tourism. In answer to the debate, this chapter will theoretically and systematically analyse volunteer tourism while being mindful of the commodification of volunteer tourism that is currently occurring, while still arguing for the placement of volunteer tourism firmly within alternative tourism.
The emerging phenomenon of pro-poor tourism (PPT) outlined in the last chapter (Hall, 2007; Meyer, 2007; Goodwin, 2008; Harrison, 2008; Suntikul et al., 2009; Theerapappisit, 2009) is an example of alternative tourism that could benefit from and include volunteer tourism. A significant component of PPT is obviously oriented towards alleviating poverty. One mechanism that can contribute to poverty alleviation is volunteering. As a result, there is great potential for synergies between PPT and volunteer tourism when approached in a decommodified or alternative way.
In spite of its importance, the ambiguity of the conceptualization of alternative tourism is a major stumbling block toward the development of a concise yet inclusive definition (Smith & Eadington, 1997). A significant and often raised question in this respect is to what extent has the primacy of the dominant hegemony of commercialism led to misinterpretation by the industry and the inclusion of a range of experiences that may not relate to its original ideals that underpin alternative tourism. Nevertheless, a general understanding must be arrived at, as alternative tourism is not simply an activity but a philosophy as well (McGehee, 2002; Singh, 2004).
Situated in this respect, volunteer tourism research needs to develop a more comprehensive theoretical understanding, and hence enable the tourism industry to examine the provision of these types of experiences. It is suggested that a volunteer tourism experience falls under the auspices of an alternative tourism experience and is constructed from a number of varying and interdependent elements each of which overlap