In this part of the book, the groundwork is laid for use of daily occupations as a meaning-making tool in life. In chapter 1, Frankl’s (1992) claim that existential vacuum and a sense of meaninglessness are the primary problems of the contemporary society are examined. His assertion that meaning-making is the anti-dote to the problem of meaninglessness irrespective of one’s life circumstances is introduced as the rationale for the book. An attempt is made to define meaning from the philosophical and spiritual perspectives. The objective understanding of meaning is compared and contrasted with the subjective view of the construct. A working definition pertaining to the role of every-day experiences as the material from which meaning is constructed is generated.
In chapter 2, the working definition of meaning is verified through an analysis of the experiences of English worker-writers as expressed in their autobiographies. These experiences are used to ground understanding of the construct of meaning in life. In chapter 3, the human search for meaning is metaphorically compared to a journey or quest. Belief supporting institutions (including cultural and religious beliefs and cultural imagination as expressed in folklore, myths, and legends), and intellectual activities through philosophical discourse and scientific inquiry are examined as vehicles that are used by human beings in their journey in search for meaning.
In chapter 4, the sources of meaning in this human quest are identified as establishment of emotionally intense relationships, engagement in work and leisure activities, and adherence to idea systems. The dimensions of meaning in this journey are identified as establishment of a sense of self-worth, a sense of purpose in life, a sense of control irrespective of one’s circumstances in life, and ability to express personal values. The four chapters in part I of the book are intended to prepare the reader for part II in which the way in which occupations are used in conjunction with each of the three sources and four dimensions of meaning at each developmental stage to facilitate a sense of purpose and meaning in life is discussed.
Chapter 1 Developing a working definition of meaningfulness
Learning objectives
After reading this chapter, the reader will understand:
1. Viktor Frankl’s notion of human search for meaning and the hypothesis that daily occupations can influence one’s sense of meaning in life
2. How meaningfulness can be viewed from a variety of perspectives:
• Philosophical
• Spiritual
• Objective versus subjective
3. Criticisms that can be leveled against each view of meaningfulness
4. A working definition of meaningfulness that will be used throughout this book
Contents of this Chapter
• Meaning and social context: an overview
• Quest for meaning, spirituality, and the influence of changing environmental and social contexts
• Evolution of meaning through human history
• The big questions about meaning: multiple perspectives – philosophical, spiritual, psychological, sociological
• A working definition of meaningfulness/meaninglessness
Introduction
For much of human history the experience of a large majority of ordinary people was that life was often precarious, influenced by the fluctuations of war, famine, or the spread of diseases (Fernandez-Armesto, 2001). The advent of industrialization which brought people from agricultural communities to the urban centers in Europe and America often exposed people to new health risks or produced sordid living conditions in which life expectancy actually fell1. For example, people employed to grind blades in the cutlery trade in Sheffield, United Kingdom often died from lung diseases when they were still in their twenties due to the dust that they inhaled while at work. Cholera, typhoid, and tuberculosis often resulted from people living in overcrowded, poorly maintained environments. Poor housing, diseases, as well as high female and childhood mortality rates created the impetus for the development of the nascent caring professions in the late 1800s: nursing, social work, midwifery, and, by the early 1900s, occupational therapy. Although the thesis in this book is that daily occupations, including work, leisure, and self-care can be used as sources of meaning in peoples’ lives, the argument that work is a source of meaning may be challenged given the poor conditions in which many of the workers still live today. In the 1900s, for many people, the building of cities offered different ways of surviving and defined an existence that was in contradiction to the philosophy of work. Large numbers of city inhabitants were involved in criminal activities, and an underworld culture of alternative values expressed in the language of that context developed. The resulting social differences between the mainstream culture and the underworld still remain important today (Linebaugh, 1991).
Victor Frankl
Before making any attempt to explore how various daily occupations can be used in meaning-making, in this chapter we will discuss in general the notion of meaning itself. In this regard, we begin with an examination of the work of Viktor Frankl. This charismatic psychotherapist became known for his work on the meaning of human life. He began working as a youth counsellor and as a doctor in the 1920s in a Viennese hospital department that catered for women suicide survivors. His experiences, and particularly those under the Nazi regime while he was living in the Theresienstadt ghetto and then during a period of incarceration in a series of concentration camps, became the basis for his work on the human search for meaning as the major motivator in life. These ideas led to the development of logotherapy, an intervention designed to combat meaninglessness and nihilism. According to Pytell (2007, 2000), Frankl’s first book was dictated in 9 days, yet the uplifting messages it contained turned it into a best seller. Frankl’s story was that he survived the horrors of the Nazi concentration camps because he had something to look forward to, a goal for which to survive. Consequently, in logotherapy, he suggested that humankind can overcome its worst fears (as he did) if only ‘each of us does his best’ to pursue a worthy goal in life (Frankl, 1992, p. 154). This is the basis for our recommendation in chapter 7 that people articulate personal mission statements clearly, so that these personal missions in life can be the basis for establishment of worthwhile goals to pursue in life, leading to a meaningful existence.
Criticism of Frankl
Frankl grew up in a comfortable Viennese Jewish family and had been educated as a doctor. Initially he was a follower of Freud’s psychoanalytic tradition, and later of Adler’s teachings. Even though he could have escaped the holocaust altogether, he found himself remaining in Nazi Austria to look after his parents at the beginning of the war. Pytell (2007, 2001, 2000) asserted that Frankl survived by co-operating with the Nazis in experimenting on the brains of Jewish suicide victims, activities in which his peers refused to engage. He was later confined in the concentration camps where he worked as a doctor. Pytell (2007) noted that it may be unreasonable to criticize Frankl’s actions in the hindsight of an historical perspective gained in times of peace, considering that these were the actions of a person trying to survive under extremely terrifying circumstances.
Nonetheless, the reader is cautioned to bear in mind that the personal