of a question to be researched. In that case, it is perfectly appropriate for researchers to be guided by their personal values, or the values that predominate in the society of the day. The second is in the analysis of the results of a research study. In that analysis, sociologists can, and should, use personal and social values to help them make sense of their findings. These values are an aid in interpretation and understanding. However, they are not to be used purposely to distort the findings or mislead the reader of a report on the study. ●
Summary
Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Émile Durkheim are the most important classical sociological theorists. Marx focused the majority of his attention on macro issues, particularly the structure of capitalist society. Unlike Marx, Weber did not focus exclusively on the economy but considered the importance of other social structures, particularly religion. Durkheim believed that social structures and cultural norms and values exert control over individuals that is not only necessary but also desirable.
Among other early sociological theorists, Georg Simmel focused on micro-level issues, specifically interactions among individuals. W. E. B. Du Bois was a pioneering researcher of race in America at the beginning of the twentieth century. Thorstein Veblen studied consumption, particularly the ways in which the rich show off their wealth through conspicuous consumption.
Structural/functional, conflict/critical, and inter/actionist theories are the three main types of contemporary sociological theory. Two influential structural/functional theories are structural-functionalism, which is concerned with both social structures and their functions and dysfunction, and structuralism, which uncovers the social impact of hidden or underlying structures.
Conflict/critical theories tend to emphasize societal struggles and inequality. Conflict theories stress the ways in which society is held together by power and coercion. Critical theory critically analyzes culture and how it is used to pacify opposition. Feminist theory critiques patriarchy, and queer theory suggests that there are no fixed and stable identities that determine who we are. Critical theories of race and racism argue that race continues to matter and that it intersects with other social statuses. Postmodern theory sees society coming to be dominated by simulations.
Inter/actionist theories deal mostly with micro-level interactions among people. Symbolic interactionism studies the effect of symbols on social interactions. Ethnomethodology focuses on what people do rather than on what they think. Exchange theory considers how the rational evaluation of goals and the means to achieve them influence behavior.
Sociologists use different research methods, depending on the research questions they are studying. Quantitative research yields data in the form of numbers, usually derived from surveys and experiments. Qualitative research is conducted in natural settings and yields descriptive information. Researchers may choose to participate and play a role in what they are observing or engage in nonparticipant observation. Ethnographic research is more likely to be based on participant observation over an extended length of time. In interviews, respondents are asked a series of questions, usually face-to-face. Survey research collects data through interviews and questionnaires. Experimentation manipulates one or more independent variables to examine their effect on one or more dependent variables. Sociologists also often engage in secondary data analysis, in which they reanalyze data collected by others. Secondary data may consist of statistical information, historical documents and analyses, or the content of cultural artifacts and messages.
Reliability is the degree to which a given measure produces the same results time after time. Validity is the degree to which a measure is accurate. Sociological researchers need to be mindful of a series of ethical issues.
Key Terms
alienation, 30
anomie, 34
capitalism, 29
capitalists, 29
class consciousness, 31
collective conscience, 34
conflict theory, 39
conspicuous consumption, 37
content analysis, 58
convenience samples, 54
critical theories of race and racism, 42
critical theory, 40
culture industry, 40
dependent variable, 55
descriptive statistics, 48
descriptive survey, 53
double consciousness, 35
dysfunctions, 38
empiricism, 46
ethics, 58
ethnography, 49
ethnomethodology, 45
exchange relationships, 45
exchange theory, 45
experiment, 54
explanatory survey, 53
exploitation, 29
false consciousness, 30
feminist theory, 41
field experiments, 56
functions, 38
genderqueer, 42
global ethnography, 50
historical-comparative research, 56
hyperconsumption, 43
independent variable, 55
inferential statistics, 48
intersectionality, 42
interviews, 50
laboratory experiments, 55
latent functions, 38
manifest functions, 38
mass culture, 40
mechanical solidarity, 34
natural experiments, 55
netnography, 50
nonparticipant observation, 49
observation, 49
organic solidarity, 35
pangender, 42
participant observation, 49
postmodernity, 43
postmodern theory, 43
proletariat, 29
Protestant ethic, 32
qualitative research, 48
quantitative research, 48
queer theory, 42
questionnaires, 53
random sample, 54
rational choice theory, 45
rationalization, 32
reliability, 58
sample, 54
scientific method, 46
secondary data analysis, 56
simulation, 43
social facts, 33
statistics, 48
stratified sample, 54
structural-functionalism, 37
structuralism, 38