William’s case is an extreme example, it is helpful to remember that most people of the eleventh and twelfth centuries only used first names. Other examples include “Joan of Paris,” “Robert of Avignon,” or “James of Berlin.” Only later, when there was a large population, did it become necessary to have a surname.
Why was William so keen to become king of England?
It made perfect sense because that kingdom (it is too early to call it a nation) lay just across the English Channel and because Normandy was better organized. Duke William had a more sovereign command over Normandy than the Anglo-Saxon monarchy possessed in England. It was one thing to desire the kingdom of England, another matter to have an actual reason, however.
In January 1066, King Edward the Confessor died. He had no living children and the Anglo-Saxon nobles gathered to elect Harold of Wessex, one of the leading men of the kingdom, as their new monarch. This satisfied many, though not all, people. Certainly it did not satisfy William of Normandy, who declared that Harold owed him the crown.
Why on earth would an English nobleman who had just become king owe his crown to a Norman?
It was the type of circumstance that could only happen in the Middle Ages. William, Duke of Normandy, had a blood relationship (albeit not a very close one) to the English monarchy, while Harold of Wessex did not. But beyond that, William of Normandy claimed that Harold of Wessex owed him the crown because he had saved his life a decade earlier. William’s claim—that he rescued Harold after a shipwreck—is best demonstrated in the Bayeux Tapestry, an embroidered cloth sewn many years after the events of 1066. As strange as all this sounds to us today, it made sense to William’s followers, and he soon had them at work building ships to prepare for an invasion of southern England.
Was there any way that the situation could become even more complicated?
There was! At about the same time that William of Normandy declared that England was his—by blood and by reason of his having saved Harald III from drowning—Harald of Norway (c.1015–1066) declared that England belonged to him. The way to keep these two men straight is to remember that Harold of England is spelled with an “o” and Harald of Norway is spelled with an “a.”
Does the Bayeux Tapestry still exist?
Yes. It is housed in a special museum in the town of Bayeux, where it wraps around the inner walls. The Tapestry (a small section is shown at left) is a marvelous, and curious, piece of history, and it is almost miraculous that it has survived for nearly a thousand years. It depicts the comet of 1066, the quarrel between William of Normandy and Harold of Wessex, and the Battle of Hastings.
Harald of Norway’s claim was much less impressive than Duke William’s, and few people took him seriously. Harold of England kept a close eye on the southern coast of his nation throughout the summer, and he was just about to send his militia home when he learned, to his dismay, that Harald of Norway had landed in northern England. Harald had brought perhaps 15,000 men, the largest Norwegian force ever sent overseas.
What did Harold of England—Harold with an “o”—do at this point?
He did something truly remarkable. Abandoning all his fortifications and preparations in the south, he marched his men over land, covering perhaps 400 miles in less than ten days. It was one of the great forced marches of the Middle Ages, and Harold and his men arrived at a time when the Norwegians were feasting.
Harald and his men got into battle array very quickly, and the two armies squared off. Tradition has it that there was one last parley before the Battle of Stamford Bridge began and that Harald’s messenger asked what his leader would be given. “Six feet of English soil” was the answer, and the battle was soon joined. Given the odds, and the temperament, of the two peoples, one would almost surely choose the Norwegians, but the Anglo-Saxons carved them to bits. Harald died on the field, and those of his men who survived got to their ships and never returned. This was the last time a Viking, or Scandinavian, force ever threatened England.
What had happened with Duke William and the Normans?
They embarked on September 12, 1066, and had a stormy passage through the English Channel, but most of the men—and their horses—landed the following day at Pevensey, on England’s southeast coast. The Normans were about 7,000 in number and had perhaps 1,000 horses, giving them far more equestrian power than the Anglo-Saxons. Duke William did not progress very far. He was satisfied with getting his men ashore and establishing a secure beachhead. He did not know what had happened in the north.
For his part, Harold of England got the bad news soon enough. Learning that William and the Normans had landed, Harold brought his men—by a much more restful trail—back to London. Upon arriving, Harold found that William and the Normans had remained pretty much where they had landed. To this point, Harold had performed extremely well, routing a force much larger than his own and persuading his men to undertake truly heroic endeavors. This was the moment when things went wrong, however.
Why did Harold not stay where he was, forcing William of Normandy to come closer?
This is the question that perplexes nearly all students of the campaign. Harold of England did almost everything “right” until about October 10, 1066, and from that day he did almost everything “wrong.” Common sense dictated that the time had come to rest on the defensive, but Harold decided that a quick, surgical strike had worked against the Norwegians and that he do the same against the Normans. On the morning of October 11, he departed London with about 7,000 men.
The relatively small size of both forces can be attributed to the difficulties involved with supply. Neither Harold nor William could keep a large force in the field for any length of time because they could not feed them. Therefore, one of the most decisive battles of the Middle Ages was fought between two forces that were—each—slightly larger than a Roman legion.
Does the Bayeux Tapestry depict the men of both armies on the march?
Because it was sewn by Normans two decades after the event, the Tapestry naturally gives more attention to the Normans, and we see them in all their battle array. The men wore short armor that covered the chest but not the legs, and the horses were magnificent creatures, clearly bred over several generations.
How did the Battle of Hastings progress?
The Anglo-Saxons held the high ground, on a sloping hill, and the Normans possessed the initiative, thanks to their greater number of horses. The Normans attacked all day and several times came within a hair’s breadth of breaking the line, but on each occasion the housecarls—or bodyguards—of King Harold made all the difference, driving the enemy back. The Anglo-Saxons made their own mistakes, however. When they came down the hill at around 2 P.M. to chase a retreating body of Normans, the Norman cavalry turned on them with a vengeance, wiping the Anglo-Saxons out almost entirely.
Late in the day, the battle still hung in the balance. If King Harold could fight the Normans to a draw, he would be able to gain reinforcements. Knowing this, the Normans made their supreme effort at around 4:30 P.M. Breaking sections of the line, the Normans were on the verge of victory, but it was not complete until Harold fell, with an arrow in his eye. Minutes later, the foremost Norman horsemen killed all three of Harold’s brothers. Seeing this, the Anglo-Saxons broke, and the Normans pursued them on horseback.
A thirteenth-century French chronicle illustration of William the Conqueror stabbing King Harold of England during the Battle of Hastings. History tells us, however, that Harold was killed by an Norman archer.
How decisive was the Battle of Hastings?
Hastings is generally rated as one of the most decisive battles of the past 1,000 years. First and foremost, it meant that William of Normandy became king of England. Second, he and his Norman knights established a new regime, one distinguished by its tough tax laws and rigid enforcement.