candidates at both the undergraduate and graduate levels (both pre- and in-service teachers). Finally, both of us have served in administration for a period of time.
Children begin developing executive functions, which we define as a group of processes that allows individuals to self-regulate the ways in which they interact with their environment, while still in the crib. These skills continue to develop into young adulthood. As situations occur that require executive function skills, parents have opportunities to reinforce appropriate responses and teach skills as needed. For instance, impulse control is necessary for the safety of a child; however, it is difficult for some children to control their impulses. As these children grow into adulthood, problems with impulse control can lead to danger physically, emotionally, and academically. As students advance from grade to grade, learning becomes more complicated, and students must make advancements in how they approach learning. It is necessary for students to use metacognition to set goals, make a plan to reach those goals, implement the plans, make necessary changes to the plans, and conclude with a successful product.
It is difficult to determine how many students have executive function deficits, as there is no formal diagnosis, only a description. However, as we have looked at executive functions and how they are developed in each student, we have found a correlation between having difficulty with executive function skills and academic and social struggles in school. For example, a student having difficulty with attention and focusing may also be unable to self-regulate and may be disruptive in class.
As knowledge of the brain continues to expand, an increased amount of information about how students learn and behave has become available. More and more cases of struggling learners describe executive function deficits, yet there are no clear guidelines for addressing those deficits in the classroom. Educators are starting to accept the fact that executive functioning does underlie behavior and learning, and it is imperative that resources be made available to meet the needs of students from early childhood through postsecondary who exhibit these deficits. Also, with an increased emphasis on Universal Design for Learning (UDL) in meeting the needs of all students, it is imperative that teachers merge the selection of appropriate strategies and technology when planning lessons using UDL.
About This Book
Teachers today are faced with meeting a plethora of rigorous curricular demands to prepare students for college or a career. Such demands are often impacted by time challenges and constraints to keep the instructional process moving forward. The idea of adding executive function skill instruction to this list of demands can be daunting. However, it is imperative that we provide students tools that will help them learn before we attempt to teach them content. Executive function skill training provides students with a set of tools that helps build the foundation of how to learn. The notion of addressing executive function skill training within the instructional process is not new. Both the Common Core Curriculum (IDEA Partnership, 2013) and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) (Center for Applied Special Technology [CAST], 2011) note the inclusion of executive function skills. In this book, we will address questions regarding the who, what, when, and how of our 7-Step Model. The who component represents all students. Implicit instruction of strategies to assist with self-regulation addresses the what component. When speaks to the sample schedule templates we provide. Where focuses on suggested venues where the strategies can be taught. Lastly, the how attends to the manner in which teachers, paraprofessionals, school counselors, and psychologists can integrate our 7-Step Model of executive function instruction into their teaching and counseling schedule. The 7-Step Model as described here will be presented as a fluid tool that can be used in part or as whole thus providing flexibility to address class size, student needs, and type of instructional setting.
We look forward to sharing our process with you in this book.
CHAPTER 1 What You Need to Know Before Deciding to Implement Executive Function (EF) Skills Training and the 7-Step Model
Reader Outcomes
☑ You will be able to explain what executive functioning (EF) is and how students can benefit from EF skill training.
☑ You will be able to explain how Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and metacognition complement EF skill training.
☑ You will be able to identify the role of supportive technology in EF skill training.
☑ You will be able to describe the 7-Step Model and the Modified 7-Step Model.
☑ You will be able to determine how you might offer EF training in your setting.
As educators, the demands placed upon us today extend beyond the traditional mastery of content knowledge. Held to accountability standards for continual student progress, as measured in part by high-stakes testing, it is our responsibility to deliver instruction in a manner that facilitates learning for all students. Current inclusive practices have resulted in heterogeneous groupings of students with a variety of learning and behavioral needs within most classrooms.
Being held to high standards regarding student achievement and success is not new. In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education produced a report entitled A Nation at Risk that communicated the strong need for major reforms in the educational process in the United States. It emphasized the need for better educational opportunities for all students (https://www2.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/risk.html). Running parallel to this cry for reform was a movement to grant inclusion to individuals with disabilities in all facets of society. As a result, legislative mandates such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004), No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2001) and Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA, 2015) continued to raise the bar for educators and students. Even with accountability mandates and a focus on evidence-based practices, too many students today still experience failure or difficulty in school. In some cases, this is a result of deficits related to executive functioning, which plays a critical role in the planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of adaptive behavior (Welsh, Pennington, Ozonoff, Rouse, & McCabe, 1990). The inclusion of strategies that address executive function deficits needs to become a part of our best practices repertoire.
What is Executive Functioning (EF)?
Executive functioning is a group of processes that allows individuals to self-regulate the ways in which they interact with their environment. Executive function skills develop and improve throughout childhood and into young adulthood.
Executive functioning involves the metacognitive processes of making decisions, planning actions, and generating responses that are adaptive to environmental demands (Reynolds, Horton, & Decker, 2008). There are a variety of models for grouping executive function skills. Brown (2005) identified six clusters of executive functions, while McCloskey, Perkins, and Van Diviner (2001) listed eleven. Still other models group executive functions differently. In this book, we categorize executive function skill areas as follows (see figure 1.1):
FIGURE 1.1 Strosnider and Sharpe Executive Function Categories
Working Memory
Prioritizing, Organizing, Sequencing, Managing Time, and Planning
Attending, Initiating, and Focusing
Controlling Social/Emotional Behaviors and Impulses
Communicating, Cognitive Flexibility/Shifting
The umbrella in figure 1.1 provides a visual of the EF categories as we organize and present them in this book. Each spoke of the umbrella includes a group of executive functions connected to chapters in the book. The EFs from left to right are covered in detail in the same sequence in chapters 2 through