and apocalyptic. They may appear heavily nuanced at times. This is the case because the characteristics of prophecy and apocalyptic texts outlined here, as already said, basically serve heuristic purposes to facilitate understanding and further investigation.
The Dawn of Biblical Apocalypticism
The transition from a prophetic to an apocalyptic perspective did not take place in a short period due to exceptional circumstances. The apocalyptic point of view came about in the course of centuries with no central authority guiding its course. It has been suggested that the fact that First Enoch is a compilation of several documents, that began to be put together toward the end of the second century B.C.E. and ended toward the end of the first century C.E., argues for the existence of an apocalyptic movement during those centuries, and this is a possibility. A convincing delineation of such a movement, however, has not yet been made, and if it were to be recognized it would not, by itself, mean that its influence was extensive. The apocalyptic imagination does not work according to rules and consistent outlines. Most probably, several apocalyptic traditions developed during the last centuries B.C.E. This means that there were different apocalyptic traditions tracing their own trajectories. During the ministry of Jesus and his disciples, apocalyptic perspectives were being held by different Jewish groups, each with its own characteristics. The apocalypticism of the Pharisees was not that of the Covenanters of Qumran, and both were quite different from that of the Zealots. In the New Testament, apocalyptic descriptions also have their own variations; quite often they do not agree with each other. Their differences, most likely, are due to choice of sources used by their authors and the situation with which they were concerned. Needless to say, each author endeavored to give a message that was relevant to the contemporary experience of his audience.
While still clearly within the standard prophetic tradition, Ezekiel and Zechariah, whose ministries took place during the exile and the re-settlement in the land, already begin to deal with themes that became central to the apocalyptic perspective. The same can be said of the non-canonical Book of the Watchers, which has been identified in the first 36 chapters of First Enoch. It is dated to the end of the third century B.C.E., that is, prior to the writing of Daniel. Even though when the Jews settled on the canon of Scripture, in the second century C.E., First Enoch was not included in the canon, it was a very widely read and appreciated book, as its having been translated from Hebrew to Aramaic, Greek and Ethiopic amply testifies. Besides, First Peter, Second Peter, and Jude demonstrate that the early Christians valued First Enoch as an authoritative book written, according to the author of Jude, by a patriarch who lived before the Flood. In this chapter I will explore Ezekiel, Zechariah and “The Book of the Watchers” in First Enoch to show how an apocalyptic perspective was developed from the sixth to the third centuries B.C.E. The period after the exile was a time of significant new developments in the religious experience of the Jews. My aim in this chapter is to discern how important shifts in perspective took place and how, even though these writings are prophetic in nature, they begin to explore themes that were not given attention by the prophets but became very important to the authors of apocalypses. These texts demonstrate the emergence of apocalyptic solutions to the human predicament.
Ezekiel
Among the canonical prophetic books, Ezekiel more than any other dates some of its oracles. In the book the oracles are not arranged chronologically. Three of them are out of order. The inaugural oracle (Ez. 1:2) is dated in 593 B.C.E., and the latest one (Ez. 29:17) in 571 B.C.E. The oracles dated between those two, however, cannot be used to date those undated. The evidence indicates that some of the oracles must have been spoken during Ezekiel’s ministry in Jerusalem prior to the beginning of the Exile in 605 B.C.E., and certainly before the capture and removal to Babylon of King Jehoiachin in 597 B.C.E. The turning point in Ezekiel’s ministry is the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E.
In connection to his initial call, he reports that the Spirit closed his mouth and made him dumb (Ez. 3:25-26). Later he was informed that when a messenger brought the news of the fall of Jerusalem his dumbness would go away (Ez. 24:27). When one who escaped from the city as it was being taken by the Babylonians came to him with the news of its destruction, he reports that he recovered the ability to speak (Ez. 33:21-22). How it was possible for him to communicate the word of the Lord to the people by the river Chebar in Mesopotamia if he had been dumb for several years is not explained.
While the dating of the oracles in reference to dramatic historical events gives significant clues for their interpretation, the evident editorial work done by compilers and editors make their interpretation uncertain at times. Evidence of these activities, among others, is that the Hebrew version of Ezekiel available to us (Massoretic Text, IX C.E.) is longer and more repetitious than the much earlier Greek version (Septuagint, II B.C.E.). The fragments of Ezekiel found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (I B.C.E.) are closer to the Septuagint than to the Massoretic Text, suggesting the existence of variations in the text as it was transcribed through the centuries. It would appear that Ezekiel had a group of followers who collected his oracles and probably added some that took into account later developments among the exiles. These collections were then placed one after the other in the book now in the canon, thus explaining repetitions and inconsistencies.
Characteristic of the ministry of Ezekiel are his many strange prophetic performances. On account of their bizarre nature some commentators consider them to be literary devices. Taking them as live occurrences, other commentators think they show that Ezekiel must have been psychologically imbalanced. Besides the dumbness already referred to, he says that he had to lay down for 390 days on his left side (Ez. 4:5), apparently in public view. Once completed this number of days, he was to lay down on his right side for 40 days (Ez. 4:6). Then, he was told to eat bread cooked with human excrement (Ez. 4:9-12). When he refused because doing it would defile him, he was allowed to cook the bread with cow’s dung (Ez. 4:15). He was also told to cut his hair and his beard and cast a third of the hair to the wind, one third to the fire and one third just scattered about. On another occasion, he was to go out of the city during the day and during the night carrying the luggage of an exile. He was not, however, to go through one of the city gates. He was to make a hole in the wall and go out through it (Ez. 12:4-5). Obviously, this could only take place before his exile, and the task would have taken herculean effort. To cap it all, when his wife died, he was told not to mourn her death (Ez. 24:15-18). Faced by this most inexplicable behavior, the people asked him, “Will you not tell us what these things mean for us, that you are acting thus?” (Ez. 24:19). Thus, readers are informed that these were prophetic performances that called for their interpretation.
Besides distinguishing himself by his bizarre prophetic performances, Ezekiel also stands out for his penchant for proverbs (Ez. 12:22; 16:44; 18:2), riddles and allegories (Ez. 17:2; 24:3). Due to this aspect of his ministry, the people had an easy time dismissing his oracles, saying “Is he not a maker of allegories?” (Ez. 20:49). The book provides ample evidence that Ezekiel was endowed with amazing language skills, as his poems unmistakably demonstrate. Ezekiel’s performances, proverbs, riddles and allegories required wisdom for their interpretation. Thus his ministry is not just the communication of a word of the Lord. His mission is also to interpret both his allegories and his performances for the people. This represents a significant first step in the transition from the role of a prophet as one speaking for another to the role of interpreter of imaginative language.
As a prophet in the tradition of the Hebrew prophets, Ezekiel is concerned to establish the sovereignty and justice of God. Announcing that the patience of God has been exhausted and the end of Judah’s national life is imminent (Ez. 7:2, 6, 10, 12, 19), Ezekiel advises repentance and the abandonment of their present course of action (Ez. 14:6; 18:30-32; 33:11). He gives long, detailed descriptions of how the people have departed from the statues and the commandments of God (Ez. 8:10-18; 22:6-12). His characterization is of a people in rebellion (3:9, 26; 5:6; 12:2, 9; 20:13, 21). To enable Ezekiel to deal with the rebellious people, God promises to make his “face hard against their faces … like adamant harder than flint have I made your forehead” (Ez. 3:8-9). This hardening would allow him to withstand the predictable animosity of his audience. On account of the prevalent sinfulness of the people, God has been going about trying to find a man but, like Diogenes in Athens, he found none (Ez. 22:30). The commandments, which were intended to give the people life, are not being followed (Ez. 20:11, 13, 21). The people’s