the mindless repetition of words. These views fail to do justice to parrot cognition and learning mechanisms, and obscure their capacity for understanding. Ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1949) had already described how parrots can learn to use words or phrases on the right occasion—for example, only saying “good morning” in the morning—and how they can teach themselves words, which is something that is usually connected to strong sensory impressions. In 1978, Pepperberg began the first serious experiment to investigate the linguistic capabilities of parrots. She soon found that for parrots, learning a language is strongly connected to acting. Parrots see words as tools, and their meaning is strongly connected with their use. Pepperberg made use of this in her work with her research partner Alex, an African grey parrot, by letting him choose his rewards. By using words, Alex gained more control over his environment. He could determine what kind of sweets he received as a reward, and could express when he wanted a break or to go outside. Using this method, Alex learned to use over 150 words and could recognize 50 objects. He understood questions about these objects and answered them appropriately. He also learned to recognize the colors, forms, materials, and functions of objects. He knew, for example, what a key was, and could also recognize new keys with different shapes and colors. Alex understood and used concepts such as “same,” “different,” “yes,” “no,” and “come here.” He would sometimes deliberately give the wrong answer if he thought a question was silly or boring. He could count, understood the number zero, used and understood syntax, and could form new words. Alex once asked Pepperberg what color he was, which is often cited as the only existential question ever asked by a non-human animal. Pepperberg did not claim that Alex spoke English, only that he was able to use English words and concepts and that he showed understanding and intelligence in doing so.
Biologist Joanna Burger (2002) describes a different type of relationship with a parrot. She adopted Tiko, a red-lored parrot, when he was thirty years old. Within a few months Tiko had changed from a hostile and dismissive bird to a loving companion. He saw Burger as his partner, and did not shy away from fighting her husband if he came too near to her during the mating season. Burger did not teach Tiko to speak in human language, and he had not learned it before she adopted him. Even though his use of human words was limited—he used some regular parrot words, like “hello” and “good boy”—they did develop a rich common language, which included the use of words, sounds, songs, eye contact, gestures, and many other expressions. Tiko liked to whistle, and he whistled duets with Burger’s husband, Mike. He instigated duets when Mike played the guitar or when he thought that Mike was angry at him, for example, because he had stolen or broken something. He sometimes spoke gibberish, and expressed his mood with his tone of voice and the intensity of his speech. He liked to speak along loudly when Burger was on the phone.
Alex and Pepperberg, and Tiko and Burger, show how different language games can come into being when humans and parrots interact. Some of these interspecies language games resemble the language games that take place between humans, while others are very different. They can be instigated by the human, or by the parrot; in all of them, animals of both species actively create meaning. Vinciane Despret (2008) describes Pepperberg’s work as “rendering capable,” or enabling the animal to speak. Donna Haraway (Azeredo 2011) rightly argues that this “rendering capable” is mutual. Alex and Pepperberg show that language games are indeed open-ended; that new language games can come into being when individuals of different species interact. While there are, of course, topics that cannot be discussed between animals of different species, there are many subjects which can. Language is limited, even when it is used between humans; there are always things that cannot be said.
One of the language games that Pepperberg and Burger describe is mimicry: imitation of the behavior of others. Wild parrots often use mimicry (Burger 2002). Recordings of two wild African grey parrots demonstrate that they used over two hundred different motifs in one night, of which twenty-three were imitations of other bird species, and one of a bat species. Imitating other animals’ call notes and alarm notes is a tool in manipulating their behavior: it can be used to steal their food, attract them, or scare them away. Mimicry is not just vocal; it can involve using gestures, facial expressions, and so on. In human social psychology, the term “mimicry” is used to describe unconscious imitation of someone else’s movements or posture. Humans often spontaneously mirror each other’s behavior, for example, by smiling, yawning, or crossing their legs. This mirroring often stops abruptly when a human becomes aware of it. Humans who feel connected to someone will imitate that person more often, and mimicry can also excite connectedness: humans who imitate each other more understand each other better, and their emotions become more attuned to one another (Stel and Vonk 2010). Mimicry has a neurological basis in mirror neurons, neurons that light up when an animal performs a movement or sees someone else perform the same movement (Van Baaren et al. 2004). Neuroscientists argue that these neurons—which are also found in other primates, and similar neurological structures are found in birds—help humans to understand the actions and intentions of others and are at the basis of empathy. The human ability to imitate is also said to be the foundation for our form of language use and learning.8
As the examples above show, mimicry also plays a role in the interaction—including learning processes—between parrots and humans. Burger describes how Tiko waves goodbye by using his foot in the same way that humans use their hands or pretends to put on his coat when she leaves. Parrots may also nod or shake their heads at the right moment in a conversation. Mimicry in parrots can have different functions. It can be a form of self-defence, or may be used in hunting. When it is used in a close relationship with another parrot or a human, it might have the same function as between humans: to express the connection that is felt or to deepen the relationship.9 Because humans and other animals learn to understand the actions and intentions of others through mimicry, because it is the starting point of empathy, and because it is how we learn, and learn to use language, mimicry involves more than just imitating others. It can lead to and express mutual attunement (see Kamphof 2017 for an example of this in chicken-human relations). Parrots who repeat words should not therefore be seen as mindless imitators of humans, but rather as individuals who respond to their surroundings, which is a starting point for dialogue.
Alarm Calls: From Communication to Language
Another set of non-human animal language games long thought to concern simple mechanistic reactions is alarm calls. In alarm calls, the relation between meaning and use is clear and tight, but they often contain more information than a simple calling out of danger. Prairie dogs, a species of ground squirrel, live in tunnels under the ground and do not leave their “village,” which makes it easy for predators to find and attack them; all they have to do is wait near the entrance of a tunnel and sooner or later a prairie dog will show up to forage. The prairie dogs have therefore developed a complex warning system (Slobodchikoff et al. 2009; Slobodchikoff 2012), using different sounds to describe different predators.10 In their calls, they identify whether the predator is coming from the sky or land; this is important because it requires a different type of response. They do not, however, stop there, describing the intruder in detail. When a human approaches, they describe their species, height, color, and the things they might be carrying (such as umbrellas or guns). When dogs approach, they mention their form and color, and may add the speed at which the dog is approaching. Their calls change meaning when the order of elements in a sentence changes, which can be compared to grammar in human sentences. They use verbs, nouns, and adverbs, which they can combine to make new expressions for unknown predators. In addition to alarm calls, they have a form of social chatter that we do not yet know much about, and some species do the jump-yip—a kind of wave that involves throwing their hands up in the air and jumping backward while yelling “yip,” which is thought to probably be an expression of joy and enthusiasm; they do this when predators such as snakes leave their territory.
Alarm calls are one of the most studied groups of animal vocalizations. There is much variation between species, both in the types of expressions and in the complexity of the calls. Chickadees use the “chickadee” sound to describe predators, and multiply the “dee” as the danger increases. Chickens use different alarm calls for different intruders,