thought that never abandoned the ideal of pious Christian rule but could nevertheless conceive of an orthodox Church once again divested of the Roman empire.
We first observe this distinct shift in emphasis among miaphysite communities of the late fifth and the sixth century, when their leaders, faced with an imperial power that lurched ever more toward official condemnation, placed a distinct emphasis on eucharistic miracles as the proof of sustained doctrinal righteousness and on eucharistic participation as the touchstone of membership within the orthodox group, irrespective of the constant oscillations in imperial opinion. Within Chalcedonian communities of the same period, communities that benefited from more consistent imperial patronage, comparable concerns are notable for the most part for their absence. But when in the subsequent century the Persian and then Muslim invasions of the Eastern provinces forced Chalcedonian Christians to confront a situation in which some of their co-religionists were placed outside the confines of the Christian empire, here too Christian intellectuals began to explore more integrated ecclesiological models that also looked to the eucharist as the great aggregating icon of an embattled but unified orthodox faith and emphasized the sustained power of eucharistic communion as the ultimate proof of the Church’s transcendence of the caprice of temporal politics.
A notable feature of this process of sacramental reorientation within Chalcedonian thought was an advanced attempt to reconcile long-standing ambiguities over the relationship between the charismatic and the collective, the ascetical and ecclesial, lives. Since the inception of the monastic enterprise, a profound disinterest had marked ascetic attitudes to the eucharist, both in hagiographical and in anthropological narratives. In the period after Chalcedon, however—as ideological and institutional pressures served to blur the boundaries between cleric and monk, and as the fragmentation of doctrinal consensus encouraged a differentiation between the sacramental dispensations of competing sects—commentators both Chalcedonian and anti-Chalcedonian began to assert more liturgified, more sacramentalized visions of ascetic practice, challenging the dominant strands of ascetic thought inherited from previous centuries (chapter 1). But it was not until the seventh century, and the dramatic Christian reversals that it witnessed, that elites within the Chalcedonian Church articulated a more pervasive and more comprehensive reconciliation of the competing imperatives of ascetical and sacramental theologies. Those seventh-century Chalcedonian elites thus presided over a marked and seminal shift in emphasis within the Roman East, in which the more differentiated and polycentric Christian culture of the late-antique period transformed into the more integrated and ecclesiocentric Christian culture of Byzantium.
We must nevertheless be cautious not to equate integration with simplification. Observers have sometimes been tempted to think of this period as one of collapse, of not only socioeconomic but also cultural contraction in which written sources become less diffuse, less complex, and less pluralistic. From the limited perspective of seventh-century Constantinople—which witnessed significant loss of territories and their associated revenues, dramatic social reorganization, and a marked break in the classicizing historiographical tradition—such a view might indeed be upheld. But elsewhere within the now reduced Roman empire, and even more so across former Roman territories throughout the Near East, the period was one of significant and diverse cultural production, much of it in fact driven through the political, economic, and cultural fragmentation contingent upon sporadic warfare and changes of regime. Indeed, if the historian is prepared to ignore geographic, linguistic, and generic boundaries in the circumscription of the available sources and to tread onto ground that artificial academic boundaries have for the most part preserved for theologians, then he or she is confronted with a vast amount of material. That much of this production was now religious in tone is not surprising and complements processes begun far earlier. But the striking predominance of (in particular) Christian themes and genres should not be interpreted too readily as an index of cultural regression, for in its various complexities the considerable religious literature of the period shows no signs of a marked decrease in originality, depth, or diversity. To think of this period as one of unambiguous cultural contraction, then, is not only to adopt a restricted, Romanocentric perspective but also to make monolithic a diverse (and still little-appreciated) Christian culture and to isolate a supposedly pure classicism as the sole measure of cultural efflorescence.
I have focused here on the corpus of three prominent and closely associated Palestinian monks: John Moschus, Sophronius of Jerusalem, and Maximus Confessor. Between them, these three are responsible for a quite extraordinary range and volume of Christian texts (hagiographies, poems, sermons, letters, commentaries, etc.); and there are, moreover, a multitude of further texts associated with them and their circle, not to mention a huge number of historiographical texts, in various languages, which describe the period through which they lived. I have here endeavored to encompass as much as possible of this diverse output. But at the same time I have chosen to give particular prominence to three substantial texts: Sophronius’s cultic Miracles; Moschus’s hagiographic Meadow; and Maximus’s liturgical Mystagogy. Although of diverse content and purpose, these texts are conspicuous for fundamental parallels and continuities in concern, and thus they point to broader ideological anxieties engaged and developed across the entire group. Through exploring each text’s distinct emphases in comparison with generic precedent and then placing it in conversation with the texts of the author’s associates within the group, I here attempt both to reveal the fundamental concerns of the individual texts and to situate such concerns within the wider pattern of the group’s sensibilities. What I advocate, therefore, is a more holistic approach to the cultural output of the circle, an approach through which comprehension of both individual texts and the collective corpus may be all the more enriched.
One concern that all our protagonists shared was that described above: that is, the place of ecclesiastical structures in relation to the life of the ascetic. This same tension is of course fundamental to the Christian monastic enterprise and would reappear throughout its future. In setting out to negotiate this tension, the Moschan circle—as I will sometimes call the group, after its most senior member—did not therefore resolve it but rather offered a compelling negotiation of it, a negotiation that, furthermore, constituted the first, developed, Chalcedonian attempt at its resolution. In Sophronius’s Miracles (ca. 610–14)—when we first encounter that circle—we discover an author for whom the eucharist has an emphatic role both in differentiating Chalcedonian and anti-Chalcedonian, and in illuminating the converted. But it is nevertheless striking that Sophronius here affords both the eucharist and its associated clerical mediation a limited place in his conception of the Christian (ascetic) life, of which his narratives are an extended metaphor (chapter 2). Within both the thought of Sophronius and that of his associates, however, that quite traditional spiritual indifference to ecclesial structures was, over time, to undergo a striking alteration. Around 630 Sophronius’s spiritual master, John Moschus, penned the Spiritual Meadow, a hagiographic text that juxtaposed traditional monastic vignettes alongside the celebration of clerics and of eucharistic miracles (chapter 3); around the same time, Sophronius’s own disciple Maximus penned the Mystagogy, an interpretation of the eucharistic ritual that reconciled the competing visions of Evagrius Ponticus and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (chapter 4); and, in the mid-630s, Sophronius himself delivered a series of sermons in which he insisted on the regular engagement of all Christians with the sacramental structures of the orthodox Church (chapter 6).
I have attempted to demonstrate how dependent that evolution was on the context in which it occurred: both in terms of the wider imperial stage (the Persian and then Muslim invasions of the Eastern provinces) and in terms of the biographies of our three protagonists (their own westward retreat from those same invasions). The Moschan circle lived through perhaps the most dramatic period in the late-antique East, as the East Roman state oscillated between brilliant triumph and unprecedented disaster. That period witnessed, for example, the invasion of the shahanshah Khusrau II (603), his capture of Jerusalem (614), and the occupation of the Eastern provinces (610–29); the incredible resurgence of Roman fortunes, culminating in the emperor Heraclius’s restoration of the captured Cross to Golgotha (630); and the explosion of the armies of the nascent caliphate into the Near and Middle East (634), signaling the end of both Roman and Persian rule in the region. These events were to have a profound effect on the lives of our three protagonists, who were forced as refugees to North Africa and Rome, there to contemplate the significance of recent events.
In