structural features are the frames provided by fences and walls as well as the paths and bridges that are used in “entry-style” gardens to guide the visitor along a predetermined course.
A magi-sterial view of the South Pond and its surroundings at Ritsurin Kōen, a large stroll garden in Takamatsu, Shikoku—one of the three most famous stroll gardens in Japan.
Next in terms of importance are more decorative elements such as stone lanterns, water basins, flowers, carp and the occasional boat. The function of such features is to augment and fill out the basic design as well as to provide color and interest.
Some large gardens also include small buildings such as teahouses, pavilions and shrines. Sometimes there is a transitional device between a main building and its garden, such as a deck where one can sit to contemplate the garden rather than wandering through it.
Basic Principles
A basic principle of Japanese gardening is miniaturization in which elements such as rocks and ponds are used to represent large-scale landscapes. Related to miniaturization is the use of various techniques to make spaces appear larger than they really are. One of these techniques is altered perspective. For example, if rocks and trees in the foreground are larger than those in the background, the result is an illusion of distance.
A second technique is miegakure (hide-and-reveal)—arranging the garden in such a way that not everything can be seen at once. For example, in entry-style gardens, vegetation, fences and structures are employed to block long-range views.
A third technique is shakkei (borrowed scenery) in which mountains and buildings such as castles that lie outside the garden are incorporated into the design of the garden.
Another basic principle is asymmetry. In asymmetric forms and compositions, no single element is dominant. If there is a focal point, it should be off-center. For example, rocks and trees usually are arranged into triangular compositions that balance horizontal, vertical and diagonal forces. Another example is to arrange the rooms of the main building such as a villa to which the garden is attached in a diagonal, overlapping pattern, sometimes referred to as “geese in flight.” This staggered arrangement creates interesting garden spaces and helps integrate a building into its natural surroundings.
Not all gardens are designed to be entered. Some are to be viewed from inside a building or from a deck, in which case the entire composition may be seen at once. This requires a different set of principles involving the need to create a balance between structural stability and a type of dynamism in which the eye is enticed to trace an interesting route as it moves from one element to another, thereby drawing the viewer into the creative process.
At the root of all such basic principles is the understanding that a garden is a work of art. Though inspired by nature, it is an interpretation rather than a copy; it should appear to be natural but it is not wild. A primary challenge to the designer is to bring out the intrinsic nature of a landscape scene in such a way that it is beautiful in all seasons of the year.
Basic Themes
Basic elements and principles vary depending upon the type of garden. There are certain themes, however, that are found in many different types of gardens. A large rock, sometimes placed on an islet, often symbolizes Buddhism’s Mount Sumeru or Taoism’s legendary mountain peak of the immortals, known as Mount Hōrai. Another frequently occurring theme is a pair of basic elements such as rocks, islets or trees to represent the tortoise and crane—traditional symbols of longevity. The crane is always the higher of the two elements in the dyad. Other common themes are natural landmarks such as Mount Fuji or famous landscape scenes in China or Japan.
Many of the basic elements of a Japanese garden are shown in this 1735 edition of the gardening manual Tsukiyama Teizōden (Building Mountains and Making Gardens) by Kitamura Enkin.
Landscape Manuals
The basic elements, principles and themes of Japanese landscape gardening were described in early gardening manuals. The first of these was Sakuteiki (Notes on Garden Making). Written in the middle of the Heian Period (794–1185), the Sakuteiki attempted to adapt Chinese gardening principles to Japanese conditions and tastes. Later manuals included the fifteenth-century Senzui Narabi ni Yagyō no Zu (Illustrations for Designing Mountain, Water and Hillside Field Landscapes) and the eighteenth-century Tsukiyama Teizōden (Building Mountains and Making Gardens) (see above). Manuals such as these are still studied today.
ROCKS, SAND AND GRAVEL
Variables to be considered in the selection of rocks, sand and gravel include shape, size, color and texture. Rocks are among the most important structural elements of a garden since they can be used to represent mountains, rugged shorelines and waterfalls. Sand and gravel also are important as they can be raked into patterns that are suggestive of flowing elements such as clouds and streams.
Types of Rocks
Landscape gardens normally use natural rocks found in the mountains, at the seashore or along rivers. These can be classified into three kinds: suisei-gan (sedimentary rocks), kasei-gan (igneous rocks) and hensei-gan (metamorphic rocks). Rocks of the first type are usually smooth and round due to the action of water. They are used on the edges of ponds and as stepping stones. Rocks of the second type are produced by volcanic activity and are usually rough in shape and texture. They are used as stepping stones or to provide a highlight, such as a mountain peak. Because rocks of the third type are very hard, they are normally used around waterfalls and streams. Cut rocks (kiriishi) also have become popular in recent times. Sedimentary rocks are generally used for this purpose since they are relatively soft and easy to handle. Cut rocks are used for bridges, water basins and stone lanterns.
Yin–yang rocks placed along a stream on the outskirts of Yuishinzan Hill at Okayama Kōrakuen (pages 150–3) represent male and female sex organs. Fertility was a favorite theme of Warrior gardens during the Edo Period since the fief was repossessed by the shogun if a daimyō did not pass it on to a son.
SOME BASIC ROCK SHAPES
Rock Selection
When rocks are selected for a garden, it is particularly important to consider shape and size. Rugged mountain peaks require large rocks with sharp, angular planes, whereas weathered hills require the gentler shapes of water-worn rocks. Another consideration is the surface patina of a rock. Some compositions call for rocks covered with moss or lichens, in which case they must be collected and handled with great care. On the other hand, a recently broken rock may be suitable to represent a high mountain peak. Even so, care must be taken to not leave scratches on the surface.
Sometimes rocks are selected because of an interesting or unusual shape or because they resemble animals, birds or human artifacts. This practice has precedents in China where the mountainous dwellings of the immortals often were depicted by unusual rocks or where an entire garden, especially in the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), could consist of an elaborate assemblage of fancifully shaped stones. The Chinese emphasis on selecting rocks for their representational or fanciful qualities has long had an influence on Japanese gardens, as in the boat-shaped rock at Daisenin Temple in the great Zen monastery complex of Daitokuji in Kyoto (page 108), the rocks used to represent heads and tails in the turtle and crane islands common in large stroll gardens, or in the unusual rocks often found in Warrior gardens.
In general, however, Japanese have preferred asymmetrical, natural shapes to representational or fanciful ones, and have placed more emphasis upon the integration of rocks into the composition than upon the uniqueness of individual rocks.
Composition and Placement
Traditionally,