ivory, ostriches, camels, zebras and even a giraffe. It is speculated that the purpose of his voyages was to expand the Chinese empire by creating tributary states.
Drawing of the poet Du Fu.
Painting of Li Bai by Liang K’ai called 'Li Po Chanting a Poem'.
Detail of Chinese Running Style calligraphy.
HIGHLIGHTS OF CHINESE HISTORY
During the Warring States Period (481–221 BCE), China was ruled by seven semi-independent kings. Each of their kingdoms had its own language, customs and cultural practices. The Qin kingdom in western China along the Wei River, a tributary of the Yellow River, began conquering its neighboring kingdoms. In 221 BCE, the Qin successfully conquered the other six kingdoms and, for the first time, unified the country under central rule.
The king of Qin declared himself Qin Shi Huang or the first emperor of Qin. The name of this new unified kingdom, Qin, was eventually Latinized as ‘China’ or China. The emperor of Qin instituted several changes, including a common monetary system. He also built roads and standardized axle widths, established a common language and writing system and a strong central rule with a well-developed bureaucracy. The dynasty was short-lived, however, as the emperor ruthlessly suppressed dissent, imposed heavy taxes, distrusted the scholar class (even burning books and killing intellectuals who he considered a threat to his rule), and was obsessed with finding a means to immortality. Before the emperor died, he conscripted tens of thousands of workers to build a tomb that included thousands of lifelike terracotta warriors.
An 18th-century depiction of Emperor Qin Shi Huang's imperial tour across his empire.
Terracotta warriors guarding the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang (r. 221–210 BCE).
THE HAN DYNASTY
Ethnic Chinese today call themselves Han after the Han Dynasty. The Han period is considered one of the most important in China’s history, as it was a time when a political system was established that remained intact, with some modifications, until the 20th century. Confucianism became the governing philosophy and helped shape the very character of the Chinese people. This was also a time of great prosperity. During the later part of the Han Dynasty, the capital of Luoyang housed half a million people, the largest city in the world at that time.
One very important development was the examination system whereby scholars could join the ruling elite based on merit. These exams were based on the Confucian Classics, a series of five books that included poetry and history, political speeches and guidelines for ritual practice established by Confucius and his later followers. Those who scored the highest in the exams were given jobs of more importance, such us mayors, governors, even prime minister, and personal aids to the emperor. This system of meritocracy was used in China all the way up to the 20th century.
TANG AND SONG DYNASTIES
The capital of the Tang Dynasty, Chang’an (present-day Xi’an), was the largest city in the world. This was a high point in Chinese civilization, even surpassing the glories of the Han Dynasty. It was a golden age of literature, art, religion and cosmopolitan culture. The Tang Dynasty is best known for its flowering of Chinese poetry. China’s most revered poets—Li Bai, Du Fu and Wang Wei—wrote during this illustrious period. Today in China people still study these Tang Dynasty poems and learn to write in these forms. An 18th-century anthology of Tang poetry has become a treasured book familiar to all educated Chinese. Landscape painting also developed and became important during this time.
| MAJOR PERIODS IN CHINESE HISTORY | |
| Shang Dynasty 1650–1045 BCE | The beginning of Chinese civilization and recorded history; walled cities, writing system, practice of divination, bronze technology, horse-drawn chariots. |
| Zhou Dynasty 1045–256 BCE | Political and social system ruled by the Zhou royal house based on hierarchy; power and land bestowed on aristocratic families, similar to Europe’s feudal system; power broke down among the semi-feudal states during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. |
| Qin Dynasty 221–206 BCE | The kingdom of Qin conquers the other six kingdoms that fought for power during the Warring States Period and China is unified for the first time; capital near present-day Xi’an. |
| Han Dynasty 206 BCE–220 CE | Modified and established the foundation for aristocratic rule; Confucianism becomes orthodox and the civil service examination system was introduced where civil servants were selected through merit; capitals established in modern-day Xi’an, then in modern-day Luoyang. |
| Six Dynasties 220–589 CE | The empire is fragmented; the north is ruled by non-Chinese invaders, the south ruled by successive Chinese dynasties; Buddhism is introduced from India and spreads; several influential forms of religious Daoism emerge. |
| Sui Dynasty 581–618 CE | China reunified; capital established in modern-day Xi’an. |
| Tang Dynasty 618–907 CE | Cultural renaissance, a flowering of the arts and literature; continued spread of Buddhism until suppressed in 845 CE; capital established in modern-day Xi’an; Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade flourished. |
| Song Dynasty 960–1279 CE | Significant economic and social change; growth in commerce and maritime trade; urban expansion and many technological innovations, including woodblock printing; civil service examination system further refined based on neo-Confucianism; capital established in modern-day Kaifeng, then moved close to modern-day Hangzhou. |
| Yuan Dynasty 1279–1368 CE | Mongol dynasty as part of their conquest of much of Asia and Eastern Europe; Beijing becomes capital of China for the first time. |
| Ming Dynasty 1368–1644 CE | Beginning of authoritarian political rule and culture; inward-looking state; growth of commercial sector; vibrant literary scene; capital first established in Nanjing, then moved to Beijing. |
| Qing Dynasty 1644–1912 CE | China ruled by Manchu invaders; further economic expansion and prosperity; dramatic increase in population; authoritarian structure challenged by military and cultural influences from the West. |
| Republican 1912–1949 CE | Weak central government after collapse of the dynastic system; continued Western influence and promotion of science and democracy; Nationalist government unable to unify the country because of Japanese invasion and civil war with the Communists; the Nationalists fled to Taiwan after their defeat in 1949. |
| People’s Republic of China 1949–present | Communist/socialist government; economic expansion; land reform; gender equality; language reform; now considered a world superpower. |
Tang court ladies, from the tomb of Princess Yongtai, Qianling Mausoleum, near Xi'an, Shaanxi.
Spring outing of the Tang court.
Buddhism gained a loyal following and many monasteries and temples were constructed during this period. It was also during this time that Buddhist doctrine was modified to conform with existing Chinese thought and philosophies.
The Tang Dynasty was so important in Chinese history that to this day many Chinese refer to themselves as ‘Tang people’, just as they also refer to themselves as Han.
The Song Dynasty continued the flourishing of the arts that began in the Tang Dynasty. New poetic forms were developed and art, religion and philosophy continued to flourish. The invention of woodblock printing led to a significant increase in literacy and many texts became widely available.
The economy expanded