Infants and Children in Context. Tara L. Kuther

infants’ awareness extends to include objects. They repeat actions that have effects on objects.

      ©iStockphoto.com/kieferpix

      One of the most important advances during the coordination of secondary circular reactions stage is object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist outside of sensory awareness (e.g., when they are no longer visible). According to Piaget, infants younger than 8 months of age do not yet have object permanence—out of sight is literally out of mind. An infant loses interest and stops reaching for or looking at a small toy after it is covered by a cloth. Not until 8 to 12 months, during the coordination of secondary circular reactions stage, will an infant search for hidden objects, thus displaying object permanence. This development is an important cognitive advance because it signifies a capacity for mental representation, or internal thought. The ability to think about an object internally is an important step toward learning language because language uses symbols: Sounds symbolize and stand for objects (e.g., infants must understand that the sound “ball” represents an object, a ball).

      Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 to 18 Months)

      During the fifth substage, infants begin to experiment with new behaviors to see the results. Piaget described infants as “little scientists” during this period because they move from intentional behavior to systematic exploration. In what Piaget referred to as tertiary circular reactions, infants now engage in mini-experiments: active, purposeful, trial-and-error exploration to search for new discoveries. They vary their actions to see how the changes affect the outcomes. For example, many infants begin to experiment with gravity by dropping objects to the floor while sitting in a high chair. First an infant throws a ball and watches it bounce. Next a piece of paper floats slowly down. Then Mommy’s keys clatter to the floor. And so on. This purposeful exploration is how infants search for new discoveries and learn about the world. When presented with a problem, babies in the tertiary circular reactions substage engage in trial-and-error analyses, trying out behaviors until they find the best one to attain their goal. Figure 5.2 illustrates primary, secondary, and tertiary reactions.

      During the fifth substage (12 to 18 months), infants begin to experiment with new behaviors to see the results.

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      Description

      Figure 5.2 Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Circular Reactions

      Source: Adapted from Papalia et al. (2001).

      Through play, infants quickly learn about the physical properties of objects.

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      Substage 6: Mental Representation (18 to 24 Months)

      The sixth sensorimotor substage marks a transition between the sensorimotor and preoperational reasoning stages. Between 18 and 24 months of age, infants develop representational thought, the ability to use symbols such as words and mental pictures to represent objects and actions in memory. In developing this ability, infants are freed from immediate experience: They can think about objects that they no longer see directly in front of them and can engage in deferred imitation, imitating actions of an absent model. Now, external physical exploration of the world gives way to internal mental exploration. Children can think through potential solutions and create new solutions without engaging in physical trial and error simply by considering the potential solutions and their consequences. Table 5.1 summarizes the substages of sensorimotor reasoning.

Table 5.1

      Evaluating Sensorimotor Reasoning

      Piaget’s contributions to understanding cognitive development are invaluable. Piaget was the first scientist to examine infants’ and children’s thinking and ask what develops during childhood and how it occurs. Piaget recognized that motor action and cognition are inextricably linked, a view still accepted by today’s developmental scientists (Libertus et al., 2016).

      Piaget’s work has stimulated a great deal of research as developmental scientists have tested his theory. However, measuring the cognitive capabilities of infants and toddlers is very challenging because, unlike older children and adults, babies cannot fill out questionnaires or answer questions orally. Researchers have had to devise methods of measuring observable behavior that can provide clues to what an infant is thinking. For example, researchers measure infants’ looking behavior by determining what infants look at and for how long. Using such methods, they have found support for some of Piaget’s claims and evidence that challenges others. One of the most contested aspects of Piaget’s theory concerns his assumption that infants are not capable of mental representation until late in the sensorimotor period (Carey, Zaitchik, & Bascandziev, 2015). A growing body of research conducted with object permanence and imitation tasks suggests otherwise, as described in the following sections.