Dams, Displacement, and the Delusion of Development
Cahora Bassa and Its Legacies in Mozambique, 1965–2007
Allen F. Isaacman and Barbara S. Isaacman
We dedicate this book to the people of the lower Zambezi valley, whose lives have been forever altered by the Cahora Bassa Dam.
Acknowledgments
We began this project on Cahora Bassa in 1997, while conducting fieldwork for our book, Slavery and Beyond: The Making of Men and Chikunda Ethnic Identities in the Unstable World of South-Central Africa, 1750–1920. In the fifteen years we were working on this project, many friends and colleagues, through their intellectual insights and thoughtful critiques, helped us sharpen our arguments and avoid embarrassing errors.
We owe a special debt of gratitude to four scholars. Richard Beilfuss, who shared with us his vast knowledge of the ecology of the Zambezi Valley, was a generous and patient teacher. His influence is apparent in our numerous citations of his work and that of his colleagues. Arlindo Chilundo helped plan the initial phase of oral research, and, together with a team of students from the Universidade Eduardo Mondlane—Xavier Cadete, Germano Mausse Dimande, Eulésio Viegas Felipe, Paulo Lopes José, and António Tovela—participated with Allen in the fieldwork conducted in 2000 and 2001. The oral interviews collected in the lower Zambezi valley by this research brigade provided much of the data on which this study rests. Chilundo’s commitment to higher education in Mozambique prevented him from continuing on this project. Wapu Mulwafu, working with two students from the University of Malawi—John Mandala and Donald Khembo—and one from the Universidade Eduardo Mondlane—Xavier Cadete—interviewed peasants living near the confluence of the Zambezi and Shire Rivers in 2000. Their research provided valuable insights about the social, ecological, and cultural effects of Cahora Bassa in that region. Finally, David Morton interviewed farmers living near Mponda Nkuwa, the site of a proposed new dam downriver from Cahora Bassa.
When we began this project, we knew very little about the construction and far-reaching consequences of large dams. Besides Richard Beilfuss, we were extremely fortunate to consult with and learn from Carlos Bento, Bryan Davies, Leila Harris, Patrick McCully, Lori Pottinger, Daniel Ribeiro, Thayer Scudder, and Chris Sneddon. Together, they patiently answered our questions and identified critical bodies of literature for us to consult.
A number of scholars read various drafts of our manuscript. The final product is far better, thanks to the detailed comments of Heidi Gengenbach, Leila Harris, Jim Johnson, Premesh Lalu, Elias Mandala, Stephan Miescher, David Morton, and Derek Peterson. Portions of this project were presented as lectures and seminars at the Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral Sciences (Stanford University); Colgate University; Cornell University; the Rockefeller Study and Conference Center (Bellagio); the Universidade Eduardo Mondlane; the University of California, Santa Barbara; the University of Michigan; the University of Minnesota; and the University of the Western Cape. Participants and audience members at all of these institutions, including James Campbell, Laura Fair, Jim Ferguson, M. J. Maynes, Anne Pitcher, Helena Pohlandt-McCormick, Daniel Posner, Arvind Rajagopal, Anupama Rao, Ciraj Rasool, Richard Roberts, Abdi Samatar, Joel Samoff, Eric Sheppard, Ajay Skaria, France Winddance Twine, and Eric Worby, offered critiques and suggestions that helped us sharpen our thinking. Finally, we commend Jean Allman, coeditor of the Ohio University New African Histories series, for her thoughtful and supportive comments. It was a pleasure to work with her and Gillian Berchowitz, the editorial director at Ohio University Press.
The staff of the Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique, the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo, and the Hoover Institution always happily assisted us. We are also grateful to the International Rivers Network and Justiça Ambiental for sharing their considerable holdings on Cahora Bassa.
We wish to thank the American Council of Learned Societies, the Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral Sciences, the Rockefeller Foundation (Bellagio), and the University of Minnesota for their generous support. The idyllic conditions at the Center make it the perfect place to work on a manuscript, and there is no better ambiance in which to complete such a project than Bellagio. We also received the assistance of the Cartography Laboratory at the University of Minnesota, whose maps grace our book.
Finally, we owe an incalculable debt to the hundreds of men and women—peasants, fisherfolk and dam workers—who readily shared their memories, experiences, and perspectives. They were our best teachers, and we hope that we have done justice to their stories. It is to them that we dedicate this book.
Abbreviations
AIM Agência de Informação de Moçambique (Mozambique Information Agency)
ANC African National Congress
EDM Electricidade de Moçambique (Mozambique’s public electricity utility)
Eskom Electricity Supply Commission (South Africa’s public electricity utility)
FIVAS Foreningen for Internasjonale Vannstudier (Association for International Water Studies)
Frelimo Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Mozambican Liberation Front)
GPZ Gabinete do Plano do Zambeze (Zambezi Valley Planning Office)
HCB Hidroeléctrica de Cabora Bassa (Cabora Bassa Hydroelectric)
IMF International Monetary Fund
JA! Justiça Ambiental
MFPZ Missão de Fomento e Povoamento de Zambeze (Mission for the Promotion and Development of the Zambezi)
PIDE Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado (International and State Defense Police)
Renamo Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (Mozambican National Resistance)
UTIP Unidade Técnica de Implementação dos Projectos Hidroeléctricos (Technical Unit for Implementation of Hydropower Projects)
WCD World Commission on Dams
WNLA Witwatersrand Native Labour Association
Zamco Zambeze Consórcio Hidroeléctrico Lda. (consortium that built Cahora Bassa)
ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union
ZAPU Zimbabwe African People’s Union
ZESA Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority
Abbreviations in Notes
ACL Academia das Ciências de Lisboa
AHD Arquivo Histórico Diplomático de Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros
AHM Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique
AHU Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino
ANTT Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo
BPA Biblioteca Pública de Ajuda
DGS Direcção Geral de Segurança (General Security Directorate; successor to PIDE)
DM David Morton
GG Governo Geral
GPZ Gabinete do Plano do Zambeze
HCB Hidroeléctrica de Cabora Bassa (Cabora Bassa Hydroelectric)
HIA Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University
HMK Hidroeléctrica de Mphanda Nkuwa
MC Middlemas Collection, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University
MFPZ Missão do Fomento e Povoamento do Zambeze
MNR Mozambique National Resistance
MRB Muwalfu Research Brigade (University of Malawi)
MRME Ministério dos Recursos Minerais e Energia (Ministry of Mineral Resources and Energy)
PIDE Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado (International and State Defense Police)
SC Secção Confidencial
SCCIM