40. First Clement, 47:4. See The Apostolic Fathers, vol. 1, trans. by Kirsopp Lake (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1912), p. 91.
41 Suetonius, in his Life of Claudius, xxv.4, reported that “since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome.” It is believed that the “disturbances” had to do with party struggles between Hebrew Christians who were zealous for Jesus as the Christ and those who resisted such teachings as anti-Judaic and heretical.
42. See, among many others, Ernest Findlay Scott, “The Epistle to the Hebrews and Roman Christianity,” Harvard Theological Review, vol. 13 (1930), pp. 205–19; Gerhard Lenski, The Interpretation of the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Epistle of James (Columbus, OH: Wartburg Press, 1946), p. 22; William Manson, The Epistle to the Hebrews: An Historical and Theological Reconsideration (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1951), pp. 171–72; See also Raymond E. Brown and John P. Meier, Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity (New York: Paulist Press, 1983), especially pp. 142–51. See also Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997), pp. 693–701.
43. Raymond E. Brown has commented, “That the work was addressed to an Italian city other than Rome is implausible: It has to be a city with considerable Jewish Christian heritage and tendency, where Timothy is known, where the gospel was preached by eyewitnesses (2:3), and where the leaders died for the faith (13:7)—no other city in Italy would have matched all or most of those descriptions” (Raymond E. Brown and John P. Meier, Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity [New York: Paulist Press, 1983], p. 146n313).
44. On the dating of Hebrews, see John A. T. Robinson, Redating the New Testament (Philadelphia: Westmiinster Press, 1976), pp. 200–220; F. F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Hebrews (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1990, rev. ed.), especially pp. 20–22, 99n57; William L. Lane, Hebrews 1–8 (Word Biblical Commentary) (Dallas: Word Books, 1991), pp. lxiii–lxvi.
45. Seneca, Moral Essays, vol. 2, trans. by John W. Basore (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1951 reprint = 1935), p. 431.
46. Ibid.
47. See E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian (Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1976), especially pp. 210–16. See also A. H. M. Jones, The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1971); Wolfgang Wiefel, “The Jewish Community in Ancient Rome and the Origins of Roman Christianity,” in The Romans Debate, edited by Karl Paul Donfried (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing house, 1977), pp. 100–119.
48. See Emil Schurer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ: 175 B.C.–A.D. 135), vol. 3, revised and edited by Geza Vermes, Fergus Millar, and Martin Goodman, (Edinburgh, Scotland T. & T. Clark Ltd., 1973), especially pp. 73–81, 95–100.
49. See Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars: Claudius 25:4 (Loeb Classical Library) (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1929), vol. 2, trans. by J. C. Rolfe.
50. E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian (Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1976), p. 217.
51. “A factor which remained almost completely constant was the political tolerance of the Jewish religion, and above all that freedom of movement without which the Jewish communities could not have developed a life of their own” (Emil Schurer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ: 175 B.C.–A.D. 135, vol. 3, revised and edited by Geza Vermes, Fergus Millar, and Martin Goodman [Edinburgh, Scotland T. & T. Clark Ltd., 1973], p. 114.
52. Concerning the “attestations” enumerated in 2:3–4 see Charles Kingsley Barrett, The Signs of an Apostle (London: Epworth Press, 1970).
2. Unit Reflections
Introduction: A Doctrinal Manifesto about Jesus (1:1–4)
1:1–4. The Letter to the Hebrews begins on a high note, with a doctrinal manifesto about Jesus as God’s Son and supreme agent of ministry. The writer’s beginning statement is a beautifully worded periodic sentence in Greek, but modem translators usually break that single sentence into shorter ones for easier reading (as, for example, the three-sentence format in the New Revised Standard Version and in the New English Bible). The contrast in verses 1–2 between God’s prophetic servants and his Son, Jesus (first named at 2:9), should be readily understood. The prophets were all limited by their humanity and historical circumstances, while the Son speaks of his Father with a full inside view of the divine will. There is thus a fullness and finality to what the Son has said, and there is an ultimacy to what he as Son has done.
Next, in verses 3–4, all that the Son has done to make a complete “cleansing for sins” is mentioned, and his holy character and exalted status are celebrated as evidences for his sufficiency. Thus, to be seated now “at the right hand of the Majestic One on high” is both his privilege and his due. But the “sitting” suggests more: It suggests that the work he set out to do has been done and that his work stands worthily completed. His sitting with God implies both a responsibility now completed and his first estate restored. Obtaining “a more excellent honor,” or “name,” than any of the angels implies that God rewarded the Son for his excellent but costly ministry as the promised Suffering Servant.
I. God’s Son as His Supreme Agent (1:1—4:13)
A. Superiority of the Son over Angels (1:5–2:18)
1. The Son’s Relation to God (1:5–14)
1:5–14. After the lofty doctrinal pronouncement about Jesus as Son of God, the writer then proceeds to document the Son’s superior status over angels by calling into use selected texts from the Hebrew Scriptures. Some of the texts he used are viewed as words spoken by God to the Son (1:5 quotes Ps 2:7; 2 Sam 7:14; and 1 Chron 17:13; vv 8–9 quote Ps 45:6–7; vv 10–12 quote Ps 102:25–27, and v 13 quotes Ps 11:01). Some other texts are viewed as words spoken by God about the Son, with angels being addressed (v 6 quotes Deut 32:43).
The writer’s use of Psalm 2:7 as God’s utterance to the Son reflects the understanding of the early church about the God-bestowed kingship that Jesus holds. This psalm was one of many that were viewed as Messianic in import. Originally part of a coronation liturgy from the time of David the King, the wording of the psalm reports God’s pleasure with the one being installed as king over the nation. Here in Hebrews, that commendation is cited in tribute to Jesus as the kingly Son; it is an acclamation of his worthiness to receive honor and to be obeyed. The early church did so honor him, and Psalm texts were among the lively tributes utilized in worship settings as well as in church writings such as this epistle.
The citation of Psalm 45:6–7 in verses 8–9 points to the supreme virtue of Jesus as the One who always honored the will of God in his decisions and deeds: “You have loved righteousness and hated evil.” The word “righteousness” will appear six times in this letter (1:9; 5:13; 7:2; 11:7, 33; 12:11), and later, in 5:13–14, the writer will make an appeal to his readers to develop character within that righteousness, so that by moral discernment and a love for what is right, genuine spiritual growth can steadily take place in their lives.
In