to the Internet), while the second model is an indirect attack, where the DoS attack is launched on a router (on the Internet) that is located in the path between the plant and endpoint. In this study, it was found that DoS attacks that were launched directly (or indirectly) cause excessive packet losses. Consequently, a controller that receives the measurement and control data late or not at all from the devices deployed in the field will make a decision based on old data.
Propagation of malicious codes. Such types of attack can occur in various forms such as viruses, Trojan horses, and worms. They are potential threats to SCADA systems that are directly (or indirectly) connected to the Internet. Unlike worms, viruses and Trojans require a human action to be initiated. However, all these threats are highly likely as long as the personnel are connected to the Internet through the corporate network, which is directly connected to the SCADA system, or if they are allowed to plug their personal USBs into the corporate workstations. Therefore, a user can be deceived into downloading a contaminated file containing a virus or installing software that appears to be useful. Shamoon (Bronk and Tikk‐Ringas, 2013), Stuxnet (Falliere et al., 2011), Duqu (Bencsáth et al., 2012), and Flame (Munro, 2012) are examples of such threats targeting SCADA systems and oil and energy sectors.
Inside threats. The employees who are disgruntled or intend to divulge valuable information for malicious reasons can pose real threats and risks that should be taken seriously. This is because employees usually have unrestricted access to the SCADA systems and also know the configuration settings of these systems. For instance, the attack on the sewage treatment system in Maroochy Shire, South‐East Queensland (Australia) in 2001 (Slay and Miller, 2007) is an example of an attack that was launched by a disgruntled employee, where the attacker took over the control devices of a SCADA system and caused 800,000 litres of raw sewage to spill out into local parks and rivers.Figure 1.1 SCADA vulnerabilities revealed since 2001 in OSVDB.
Unpatched vulnerabilities. The existence of vulnerabilities is highly expected in any system and it is known that hackers always exploit unpatched vulnerabilities to obtain access and to control the targeted system. Even though the vendors immediately release the patches for the identified vulnerabilities, it is challenging to install these patches on SCADA systems that run twenty‐four‐by‐seven. Therefore, such systems will remain vulnerable for weeks or months. As depicted in Figure 1.1, and according to the independent and Open Source Vulnerability DataBase (OSVDB)1 for the security community, vulnerabilities targeting SCADA systems have substantially increased over the past three years since 2011.
Nontechnical (social engineering) attacks. This type of attack can bypass state‐of‐the‐art security technologies that cost millions of dollars. In general, the attackers initially try to obtain sensitive information such as the design, operations, or security controls of the targeted SCADA system. There are a number of ways to gather such information. If the network access credentials of ex‐employees are not immediately disabled, they can be revealed to another party in order to profit from the information, or as a desire for revenge. In another way, such critical information can be easily obtained from current employees as long as they are known by building a trust relationship or by knowing some information about a naive employee who is allowed to remotely control and monitor the systems via the Internet, all of which can help the attacker to answer the expected questions when calling up the central office to tell them that s/he forgot the network access credentials and assistance is needed to connect to the field network.
The security concepts that have been extensively used in traditional IT systems (e.g., management, filtering, encryption, and intrusion detection) can be adapted to mitigate the risk of the aforementioned potential threats against SCADA systems. However, these concepts cannot be directly applied without considering the nature of SCADA systems. For instance, the resource constraints of SCADA devices, such as low bandwidth, processing power, and memory, complicate the integration of complex cryptography, especially with legacy devices. All the SCADA protocols were developed without any consideration given to information security and, therefore, they lack authentication and integrity. Two solutions to secure the SCADA communications are: placing the cryptographic technologies at each end of the communication medium (American Gas Association (AGA), 2006; Tsang and Smith, 2008), or directly integrating them into the protocol, such as a secure DNP3 that protects the communication between master stations and outstations such as PLCs, RTUs, and IEDs (Majdalawieh et al., 2006).
Apart from the efforts to authenticate and encrypt SCADA communication links, it is still an open research challenge to secure the tens of SCADA protocols that are being used or to develop security modules to protect the communication link between two parties. AGA (American Gas Association (AGA), 2006) highlighted the challenges in building security modules that can be broadly summarized into two points: (i) the additional latency can be introduced by a secure protocol and (ii) the sophisticated key management system requires high bandwidth and additional communication channels that SCADA communication links are lacking.
Similarly, the traffic filtering process between a SCADA network and a corporate network using firewalls is a considerable countermeasure to mitigate the potential threats. However, although modern firewalls are efficient for analysing traditional IT traffic, they are incapable of in‐depth analysis of the SCADA protocols. To design firewalls tailored to SCADA systems, the UK governments National Infrastructure Security Co‐ordination Center (NISCC) published its guidelines for the appropriate use of firewalls in SCADA networks (Byres et al., 2005). It was proposed that a microfirewall should be embedded within each SCADA device to allow only the traffic relevant to the host devices. However, the computational power of SCADA devices can be a challenging issue to support this type of firewall.
Firewalls can be configured using restrict‐constrained rules to control traffic in and out of the SCADA network; however, this will conflict with the feature allowing remote maintenance and operation by vendors and operators. Additionally, firewalls are assumed to be physically placed between the communication endpoints to examine each packet prior to passing it to the receiver. This may cause a latency that is not acceptable in real‐time networks. Since firewalls do not know the “normal” operational behavior of the targeted system, they cannot stop malicious control messages, which may drive the targeted system from its expected and normal behavior, when they are sent from a compromised unit that is often used to remotely control and monitor SCADA networks. Moreover, it is beyond the ability of firewalls when the attacks are initiated internally using an already‐implanted malicious code or directly by an employee. Stuxnet (Falliere et al., 2011), Duqu (Bencsáth et al., 2012), and Flame (Munro, 2012) are the recent cyber‐attacks that were initiated from inside automation systems. Therefore, the reliance only on firewalls is not sufficient to mitigate the potential threats to SCADA systems. Hence, an additional defense needs to be installed to monitor already predefined (or unexpected) patterns for either network traffic or system behavior in order to detect any intrusion attempt. The system using such a method is known in the information security area as an Intrusion Detection System (IDS).
There is no security countermeasures that can completely protect the target systems from potential threats, although a number of countermeasures can be used in conjunction with each other in order to build a robust security system. An IDS (Intrusion Detection System) is one of the security methods that has demonstrated promising results in detecting malicious activities in traditional IT systems. The source of audit data and the detection methods are the main, salient parts in the development of an IDS. The network traffic, system‐level events and application‐level activities are the most usual sources of audit data. The detection methods are categorized into two strategies: signature‐based and anomaly‐based. The former searches for an attack whose signature is already known, while the latter searches for activities that deviate from an expected pattern or from the predefined normal behavior.
Due to the differences between the nature and characteristics of traditional IT and SCADA systems, there has been a need for the development of SCADA‐specific IDSs, and