this sketch of rock layers, the oldest is A, and the youngest is...
3 Chapter 4FIGURE 4-1: The five major spheres of Earth’s planetary system.FIGURE 4-2: The path of wave travel if Earth’s interior were a continuous solid...FIGURE 4-3: The recorded path of P waves and S waves.FIGURE 4-4: The layers of the earth.
4 Chapter 5FIGURE 5-1: The parts of an atom.FIGURE 5-2: The parts of one square of the periodic table of elements.FIGURE 5-3: The periodic table of the elements.FIGURE 5-4: The ionic bond between sodium and chloride to form a molecule of Na...FIGURE 5-5: Covalent bonding in a water molecule.FIGURE 5-6: Metallic bonding between atoms in a sea of electrons.
5 Chapter 6FIGURE 6-1: Mohs relative mineral hardness scale.FIGURE 6-2: Cleavage planes of muscovite, feldspar, halite, and flourite.FIGURE 6-3: The appearance of a conchoidal mineral fracture.FIGURE 6-4: The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron.FIGURE 6-5: The single chain silicate structure.FIGURE 6-6: The double chain silicate structure.FIGURE 6-7: The sheet silicate structure.FIGURE 6-8: The framework silicate structure.FIGURE 6-9: The ring silicate structure.
6 Chapter 7FIGURE 7-1: Bowen’s reaction series.FIGURE 7-2: Features of a volcano.FIGURE 7-3: Features of a shield volcano.FIGURE 7-4: Features of a stratovolcano or composite cone.FIGURE 7-5: Features of a cinder cone volcano.FIGURE 7-6: Types of intrusive igneous features.FIGURE 7-7: Mechanical weathering of a rock into sediment.FIGURE 7-8: Weathering by exfoliation.FIGURE 7-9: Poorly sorted and well-sorted sediments.FIGURE 7-10: Cross-bedding.FIGURE 7-11: Graded bedding.FIGURE 7-12: Current ripple marks.FIGURE 7-13: Mud cracks.FIGURE 7-14: Contact metamorphism.FIGURE 7-15: Index minerals in shale metamorphism.FIGURE 7-16: Indirect and direct pressure.FIGURE 7-17: The foliation of minerals by direct pressure.FIGURE 7-18: The rock cycle.
7 Chapter 8FIGURE 8-1: The continents today.FIGURE 8-2: South America and Africa connected.FIGURE 8-3: Distribution of fossil evidence on Gondwana continents.FIGURE 8-4: Stratigraphic sequences of rock from continents, suggesting they we...FIGURE 8-5: Reconstruction of the continents together, based on glacial striati...FIGURE 8-6: The continents forming Laurasia.FIGURE 8-7: The relative age of oceanic crust along the seafloor of the Atlanti...
8 Chapter 9FIGURE 9-1: The equilibrium line for continental and oceanic crust.FIGURE 9-2: Characteristics of a mid-ocean ridge and rift valley.FIGURE 9-3: A region of active rifting around the Arabian Peninsula and Africa.FIGURE 9-4: A continental-oceanic plate convergent boundary subduction zone and...FIGURE 9-5: An oceanic-oceanic convergent plate boundary and associated geologi...FIGURE 9-6: A continental-continental plate convergent boundary and associated ...FIGURE 9-7: Features of a transform boundary.FIGURE 9-8: Fracture zone transform faulting across a mid-ocean divergent bound...FIGURE 9-9: Three types of rock stress.FIGURE 9-10: Anticline and syncline features.FIGURE 9-11: Dome and basin features.FIGURE 9-12: Features of a fault.FIGURE 9-13: Dip-slip faults.FIGURE 9-14: Accretion of volcanic islands onto continental crust.
9 Chapter 10FIGURE 10-1: A cross-section of the earth illustrating the focus of each model ...FIGURE 10-2: A cross-section view of how a volcanic island arc is created.FIGURE 10-3: A cross-section view of how a continental margin arc is created.FIGURE 10-4: The Pacific Plate moving across a volcanic hot spot created (and c...FIGURE 10-5: A seismometer.FIGURE 10-6: A seismogram of S and P waves.
10 Chapter 11FIGURE 11-1: In (a), the friction overcomes the pull of gravity, so everything ...FIGURE 11-2: Sediments of different grain size have different angles of repose.FIGURE 11-3: Stream erosion, undercutting the angle of repose, leads to mass wa...FIGURE 11-4: Rock falls occur when materials fall through the air from a steep ...FIGURE 11-5: A slide of intact rock material and a slump leaving a scarp.FIGURE 11-6: As soil creep occurs, objects in the soil begin to tilt downhill.
11 Chapter 12FIGURE 12-1: Earth’s hydrologic cycle.FIGURE 12-2: A watershed.FIGURE 12-3: (a) Laminar flow; (b) turbulent flow.FIGURE 12-4: (a) Dendritic drainage; (b) rectilinear drainage; (c) radial drain...FIGURE 12-5: A braided stream channel.FIGURE 12-6: A meandering stream channel that creates an oxbow lake.FIGURE 12-7: Beneath the surface as water infiltrates sediment and rock layers.FIGURE 12-8: Springs often occur on hillsides, where groundwater flows out onto...FIGURE 12-9: Groundwater heated by magma rises to the surface as a geyser.
12 Chapter 13FIGURE 13-1: Glacier zones of accumulation and ablation.FIGURE 13-2: Landscape features of alpine glacial erosion.FIGURE 13-3: How ice sheet flow creates a roche moutonnée.FIGURE 13-4: Different types of glacial moraines.FIGURE 13-5: Features of glacial deposition.FIGURE 13-6: Milankovitch cycles of (a) eccentricity, (b) obliquity, and (c) pr...
13 Chapter 14FIGURE 14-1: Creep, bed load, and suspended load layers in a wind current.FIGURE 14-2: Creation of a ventifact by abrasion.FIGURE 14-3: A typical sand dune.FIGURE 14-4: Creation of bedding on the dune slip face and the appearance of cr...FIGURE 14-5: Dune types.FIGURE 14-6: Desert pavement created by wind erosion.FIGURE 14-7: The formation of desert pavement through deposition.
14 Chapter 15FIGURE 15-1: Parts of a wave.FIGURE 15-2: Oscillatory wave motion.FIGURE 15-3: Transition of waves from oscillatory to translatory motion in shal...FIGURE 15-4: The pull of the moon creates a bulge, resulting in tides.FIGURE 15-5: Generating a longshore current.FIGURE 15-6: Motion of a rip current.FIGURE 15-7: Coastal features of erosion.FIGURE 15-8: Features of coastal deposition.
15 Chapter 16FIGURE 16-1: How an angular unconformity is created.FIGURE 16-2: How a disconformity is created.FIGURE 16-3: The Grand Canyon exhibits a nonconformity (1), an angular unconfor...FIGURE 16-4: Alpha decay of a radioactive isotope.FIGURE 16-5: Beta decay of an isotope.FIGURE 16-6: Beta capture of an isotope.FIGURE 16-7: The geologic timescale.
16 Chapter 17FIGURE 17-1: Trace fossils include tracks and burrows.FIGURE 17-2: Two styles of cladograms, or phylogenetic trees.
17 Chapter 18FIGURE 18-1: Cratons of the modern continents.FIGURE 18-2: A prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell.FIGURE 18-3: The biological process of photosynthesis.FIGURE 18-4: Formation of a stromatolite as algae strands trap sediments.
18 Chapter 19FIGURE 19-1: A trilobite.FIGURE 19-2: Changes in ammonoid shell sutures through time.FIGURE 19-3: A straight-shelled nautiloid from the Paleozoic.FIGURE 19-4: A eurypterid.FIGURE 19-5: An ostracoderm, the earliest fish.FIGURE 19-6: Armored head bones of a Dunkleosteus.FIGURE 19-7: Plants common in the Carboniferous coal swamps of the Paleozoic: L...FIGURE 19-8: The pattern of sedimentary rock formation in the ocean.FIGURE 19-9: Rock types indicating a marine transgression.FIGURE 19-10: Rock types indicating a marine regression.
19 Chapter 20FIGURE 20-1: The arrangement of modern continents when they formed Pangaea.FIGURE 20-2: North America during the Mesozoic era.FIGURE 20-3: Planktonic foraminifera.FIGURE 20-4: The reptile family tree.FIGURE 20-5: A flying reptile of the Mesozoic, the pteranodon.FIGURE 20-6: Bird- and lizard-like hip structure of dinosaurs.FIGURE 20-7: Ornithischian dinosaurs.FIGURE 20-8: Saurischian dinosaurs.
20 Chapter 21FIGURE 21-1: The Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt.FIGURE 21-2: The Circum-Pacific belt, called the Ring of Fire.FIGURE 21-3: Geographic features of North America formed during the Cenozoic.FIGURE 21-4: A Uintatherium mammal from the Eocene epoch.FIGURE 21-6: Mammoth and mastodon teeth.FIGURE 21-5: A Moeritherium.FIGURE 21-7: Stages in whale evolution from land-dwelling to fully aquatic mari...
21 Chapter 22FIGURE 22-1: Regions of the modern continents covered in flood basalt rock laye...FIGURE 22-2: Extinction rates for five major extinction events.FIGURE 22-3: The location of the Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico.
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