to the covenantal relationship evident in the exodus, a powerful message to people in exile after the temple has been destroyed. Negatively, there is a contrast between the Lord who brought the people out of Pharaoh’s bondage in Egypt and Solomon who sealed an alliance with Pharaoh by marrying his daughter and whose own buildings are made possible by oppression that is the opposite of the justice seen earlier in his reign. Solomon’s apparent “success” is described as a reversal of the exodus.
Where is Solomon’s Heart?
Intertwined with the relativizing of the temple, with priority given to the exodus and formation of a redeemed people who are to live according to covenantal laws, there is critique of material prosperity evidenced in buildings, military power, and trade.
The detail within 1 Kings 9:10–19 is often seen as a catalog of “Solomon’s Other Activities,”24 a miscellany of projects in international relationships, buildings in Jerusalem and beyond, efficient organization of non-Israelite labor, fulfillment of temple obligations, and trade.
On the face of it, the text is a celebration of the king and his remarkable achievements. If we remember that Israel, only two generations before, was a disadvantaged hill country with a peasant population, the work of Solomon must necessarily be received as exotic and astonishing.25
It is this which attracts the Queen of Sheba; is this how Israel is to be a blessing to the nations? One might compare the material splendor of many centers of “Christendom.”
The context provides a different perspective. It is common to speak of Solomon being led astray by “foreign women” (11:1, 4),26 but here are signs that he is being led astray by material wealth and power, with “conspicuous consumption”27 that enhances his status. In 9:1 it states more than “when Solomon had finished building the temple of the Lord.” It continues “and the royal palace and had achieved all he had desired to do” [lit., “and every desire (ḥēšeq) of Solomon which he delighted (ḥāpēṣ) to do/make”]. The noun ḥēšeq is rare28 but the related verb (used along with the noun in v. 19) is a strong word describing strong affection towards a person or God.29 In contrast, Solomon’s “desire” is towards things: the listing in verses 10–19a is summarized as “Solomon’s desire (ḥēšeq) which he desired (ḥāšaq) to build in Jerusalem, in Lebanon and throughout all the territory he ruled” (v. 19b). He is able to build “all” he desires (9:1) and his “desires” are all matters of status, power, and wealth. Later the Queen of Sheba will say of Solomon’s wealth and wisdom that “the Lord has delighted (ḥāpēṣ) in you.” God has kept his promise, but 9:1–19 shows that Solomon’s “delight” is not in God but in his magnificent buildings. At what cost? The people themselves experienced oppressive labor policies (12:4).
Reading the listing (vv. 10–19) after God’s words of promise and warning (vv. 2–9) is salutary. God provides his criteria for success (vv. 3–9) which include “nothing about trade or buildings or alliances or organization. It all turns on the single point of Torah obedience . . . If Torah has to do with love of God and love of neighbor, then the massive expansionist enterprise of Solomon is to be judged harshly as a deep failure.”30 Verses 1–9 provide a piercing light to reveal what may be overlooked in the dazzling list of accomplishments. Solomon’s chosen path led initially on his death to the division of the kingdom and ultimately to the end of the Davidic dynasty.
How is Israel to be a blessing to the nations? Solomon begins with much that is commendable. His early actions were praised by Hiram, but later Hiram complains about shoddy treatment (9:11–14).31 The Queen of Sheba is attracted, most likely by the possibilities of a lucrative trade, yet readers will see unexpected irony in her words. After praising Solomon’s achievements, evidenced by the wealth of the court, and his wisdom, as seen in his answers to her questions, she praises “the Lord your God . . . Because of the Lord’s eternal love for Israel, he has made you king to maintain justice and righteousness” (10:9; cf. Gen 18:19). She affirms God’s intention, but the preceding narrative has shown how far Solomon has departed from “justice and righteousness.”
The rest of chapter 9 and chapter 10 detail a clear negative parallel to the Deuteronomic laws relating to the king (Deut 17:16–17):
The king, moreover, must not acquire great numbers of horses for himself or make the people return to Egypt to get more of them, for the Lord has told you, “You are not to go back that way again.” He must not take many wives, or his heart will be led astray. He must not accumulate large amounts of silver and gold.
The details of horses—the acquisition of military resources—including trade with Egypt, and “much gold” are given before we come to the wives.
People in exile, feeling insignificant and powerless amongst the material grandeur and economic strength of Babylon are reminded that Solomon’s “glory” was the path to failure. The allure of material grandeur of places of worship, of great political structures and economic power through trade, and of this being achieved through pragmatic wisdom, continues today.
A New Testament perspective is evident in its explicit references to Solomon. Matthew 6:29, “not even Solomon in all his splendor was dressed like one of these,” is part of 6:19–34 commencing “do not store up for yourselves treasures on earth” and warning that “you cannot serve both God and money”; rather God supplies what is needed and so our priority is to “seek first his kingdom and his righteousness.” The parallel comparison in Luke 12:27 is in a block (12:13–34) which commences with the parable of the rich fool, and goes on to enjoin “sell your possessions and give to the poor,” concluding “for where your treasure is, there your heart will be also.” Solomon’s glory becomes warning, with the implication that in the end he was a “rich fool.”
Other references to Solomon in the Gospels are in the genealogy of Jesus (Matt 1:6–7), pointing to Jesus as the fulfillment of the promise concerning the Davidic king, reinforced by the statement that the “Queen of the South” came to “listen to Solomon’s wisdom, and now something greater than Solomon is here” (Matt 12:42; Luke 11:31). The only other New Testament mention of Solomon is in Stephen’s provocative retelling of the history of God’s people: his inclusion of Solomon’s building the temple is immediately followed by “however, the Most High does not live in houses made by human hands” (Acts 7:47–48). In saying “made by human hands,” Stephen may be deliberately echoing the LXX’s derogative description of idol worship,32 as well as the quoted words of Jesus, “I will destroy this temple made by human hands and in three days will build another, not made with hands” (Mark 14:58).33
The New Testament endorses features of the Kings narrative: the primacy of wholehearted following of God’s ways, the dangerous allure of wealth and desire for security and status symbols, and the secondary position of places of worship and associated ritual. How often are these aspects of Solomon referred to in preaching? New Testament allusions direct us to pay attention to the Solomon narrative and so reflect on the complexities of decisions to be made in everyday life and to see clearly the temptations to misuse God’s good gifts, turning aside after counterfeit gods.
Early in his reign Solomon is commended for his “love” of God (1 Kgs 3:3) and for his answer to God’s question, “Ask for whatever you want me to give you” (3:5), but later “all he had desired to do” (9:1) is related to royal buildings and “he held fast to them (foreign women) in love” (11:2). A thousand years later Christ says to his disciples, “Ask and it will be given to you” (Matt 7:7), significantly in the context of the Sermon on the Mount which contrasts the priorities of Solomon (6:29), a reminder of ways in which Solomon misused the generous gifts of God. How will Christ’s followers respond to that generous offer today? We are promised all that we need so that our “good works” lead others to “glorify your Father in heaven” (5:16).34
Blessing to Other Nations
Apart from Solomon, Jesus refers to only two incidents from 1 and 2 Kings, both telling of blessing to someone outside God’s people: Elijah and provision for a widow in Zarephath, and Elisha and the healing of Naaman.35 These reminders were