10%, in increments of 2.
The approximate values for prevalence of childhood disorders in children are:
Autism Spectrum: 1%
Separation Anxiety: 3%
ADHD: 8%
Social Phobia: 1%
PTSD: 1%
Depression: 3%
Bipolar Disorders: 0.2%
Eating Disorders: 0.2%
Conduct Problems: 2%
Substance Use Disorders: 0%
The approximate values for prevalence of childhood disorders in adolescents are:
Autism Spectrum: 0.8%
Separation Anxiety: 3%
ADHD: 6.5%
Social Phobia: 8.1%
PTSD: 3.9%
Depression: 8.1%
Bipolar Disorders: 2%
Eating Disorders: 2.9%
Conduct Problems: 5.6%
Substance Use Disorders: 8.2%
Back to Figure
The details of the graph are as follows:
The horizontal axis shows percentage of children and adolescents receiving medication, from 0% to 12%, in increments of 2.
The vertical axis shows the age range for girls, boys, and the total age.
The approximate percentage of children and adolescents receiving medication are:
1 Girls of 6-11 years: 4%
2 Girls of 12 to 17 years: 6.2%
3 Boys of 6-11 years: 9.2%
4 Boys of 12 to 17 years: 10.2%
5 Total: 7.6%.
2 The Causes of Childhood Disorders
©iStockphoto.com/Liderina
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
2.1 Understand the basic principles of developmental psychopathology as a way to study the emergence of children’s behavior problems.
2.2 Explain how genetic, epigenetic, and other biological factors can place youths at risk for mental health problems.
2.3 Describe the way psychological factors (i.e., thoughts, feelings, and actions) can contribute to the emergence of mental disorders in youths.
2.4 Analyze the way social–cultural factors can influence children’s development both proximally and distally.
2.1 Developmental Psychopathology
Long ago, six blind men came upon an elephant. Each man touched a different part of the beast to determine what it was. The man who felt a leg said the elephant is like a pillar; the man who felt the tail said the elephant is like a rope; the man who felt the ear said the elephant is like a fan, and so on (Image 2.1).
The men quarreled with each other over the identity of the elephant until the king, who was not blind, approached. The king resolved their dispute by saying, “All of you are right, but only partially. The reason for your disagreement is that each of you is touching a different part of the animal. You must work together to get the complete picture.”
Wikimedia Commons
Like the men in the story, psychologists try to understand the causes of childhood disorders using a range of approaches. Some psychologists study the biological underpinnings of behavior; others focus on children’s actions, thoughts, or emotions; and others investigate the impact of family, friends, and society on development. Although each approach is helpful, it yields only part of the picture.
For example, if scientists try to understand autism spectrum disorder in terms of genetics or brain abnormalities alone, then they ignore the role that devoted parents and high-quality schools can play in the developmental outcomes of children with that condition. Although biology plays an important role in the emergence of autism, parents and schools also influence the developmental outcomes of youths with this disorder.
Similarly, a researcher who believes that eating disorders are caused by unrealistic portrayals of women and girls in the media may overlook the way operant conditioning can be used to explain dangerous behaviors like bingeing and purging. Although television, movies, and other media can contribute to unhealthy eating behavior in teens, other factors can also affect the emergence and maintenance of this disorder over time. Children’s psychological problems are complex and multiply determined. They are best understood when we approach them from multiple perspectives (Cicchetti, 2019).
What Is Developmental Psychopathology?
Development Over Time
Developmental psychopathology is a multidisciplinary approach to understanding child development and the emergence of children’s mental health problems over time (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2020; Rutter & Sroufe, 2000). Developmental psychopathologists try to identify the causes of children’s disorders across three broad levels of analysis:
1 Biological, including children’s genes, brain structure and functioning, and physical health and development;
2 Psychological, including children’s thoughts, feelings, and actions; and
3 Social–cultural, including children’s family, friends, schools, neighborhoods, ethnicity, and cultural background.
Developmental psychopathologists integrate data from across these three levels to provide the clearest picture of the causes of children’s problems and to find the best way to treat them (Hinshaw & Beauchaine, 2015). They use the term probabilistic epigenesis to describe the way factors on each level interact to shape children’s development over time (Cicchetti, 2016a, 2016b).
To understand the way each level of analysis influences the others, consider Nina, a child with Down syndrome. As you probably know, Down syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation of the 21st chromosome (Level 1: Biological). This genetic mutation caused Nina’s brain and central nervous system to develop in an atypical fashion. She showed structural irregularities in brain regions important for verbal reasoning, memory, and learning.
These biological abnormalities, in turn, affected her psychological functioning during early childhood (Level 2: Psychological). Nina’s parents reported delays in her motor abilities, use of language, and self-care skills. In school, she learned to read, write, and count more slowly than other children.
These psychological characteristics affected the type of care Nina received from parents and teachers (Level 3: Social–Cultural). Nina’s mother was understandably very protective, and her teachers offered Nina extra help in school. Nina’s cognitive functioning also affected her relationships with peers. Nina preferred to play with younger children rather than her classmates. By the time Nina reached junior high school, she was behind her peers academically. However, Nina was able to spend half the school day in a regular sixth-grade