phenomenon in which disorders persist over time relatively unchanged (e.g., a boy with intellectual disability continues to have this disorder as an adult)Internal working model:In attachment theory, a mental representation of a caregiver that helps an individual cope with psychosocial stressLearning theory:A broad explanation for the causes of behavior that relies on classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modelingLimbic system:Located deep within the brain, responsible for emotional processing and memory; consists of the amygdala, hippocampus, and several other structuresMaladaptive behaviors:Thoughts, feelings, and actions that interfere with children’s social, emotional, and behavioral competence or do not meet the changing demands of the environmentMolecular genetics:An area of scientific study that examines the relationship between specific genes and the presence or absence of characteristics and disordersMultifinality:Describes the phenomenon in which children with similar early experiences show different social, emotional, and behavioral outcomesNeural plasticity:A term used to describe the brain’s capacity to change its structure or functioning in response to environmental experienceNeurons:Nerve cells; consist of dendrites, a cell body (soma), an axon, and terminal endings; relay information within themselves using electrical signalsNeurotransmitters:Chemical messengers that allow neurons to communicate with each other; examples are dopamine and serotoninNonshared environmental factors:Experiences that differ between siblings (e.g., different age, gender, friends, sports, or hobbies)Operant conditioning:A type of learning in which an action is associated with an environmental consequence, either reinforcement or punishmentParenting types:A four-part classification of parenting behavior based on its degree of responsiveness and demandingness: authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, uninvolvedPhenotype:The observable expression of our genetic endowmentProbabilistic epigenesis:A principle of developmental psychopathology; refers to the manner in which genetic, biological, and social–cultural factors interact over time to influence (but not absolutely determine) developmentProtective factors:Influences that buffer the negative effects of risks on children’s development and promote adaptive functioningPunishment:In operant conditioning, an environmental consequence that decreases the likelihood of future behaviorReinforcement:In operant conditioning, an environmental consequence that increases the likelihood of future behaviorResilience:The tendency of some children to develop social, emotional, and behavioral competence despite the presence of multiple risk factorsRisk factors:Influences on development that interfere with the acquisition of competencies or compromise children’s ability to adapt to their environmentsShared environmental factors:Environmental experiences common to siblings (e.g., same parents, house, school)Social cognition:Refers to a person’s capacity to think about social situations and to perceive, interpret, and solve interpersonal problemsSocial learning theory:The idea that people learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modelingStrange situation:A laboratory-based test of infant–caregiver attachment; can be used to determine attachment securitySynaptogenesis:An increase in the number of neurons and connections between neurons; arises from maturation and experienceTemperament:An inborn tendency to organize and react to behavior in response to environmental stimuli
Critical Thinking Exercises
1 Mrs. Johnson referred her 5-year-old son, Billy, to a psychologist because Billy showed problems with oppositional and defiant behavior (e.g., crying, throwing tantrums, sassing back). The psychologist observed Mrs. Johnson and Billy during a 20-minute play session in the clinic. During the session, Mrs. Johnson repeatedly yelled at Billy and threatened to spank him. How might Billy’s behavior problems be explained by the transaction between Billy and his mother?
2 Are you and your biological siblings alike? Although you and your brother or sister might have been raised by the same parents and grew up in the same home, you might have different personalities, interests, and goals for the future. Use the concept of shared and nonshared environmental factors to explain why two biological siblings who grow up in the same household can be so different.
3 Savannah is a 12-year-old girl who is extremely shy in social situations. She loves computer programming and graphic design and wants to take a class this summer to develop her skills. However, she is afraid to go. How might you use graded exposure to help Savannah overcome her anxiety about attending the class?
4 Bruno is a 14-month-old infant who participates in the strange situation. When left alone, Bruno becomes greatly upset and cries considerably. However, when his mother returns to the room, he runs to her, motions to be picked up, and sinks into her arms. An observer comments, “Bruno doesn’t seem to be securely attached. He’s so easily upset when his mother leaves!” Is this statement accurate?
5 Diana Baumrind discovered that children from authoritative families often show the best developmental outcomes. However, most research supporting this conclusion has been conducted with middle-class, non-Latino White families. How might SES or ethnicity affect the relationship between parenting behavior and children’s outcomes?
Test Yourself and Extend Your Learning
Videos, flashcards, and links to online resources for this chapter are available to students. Teachers also have access to PowerPoint slides to guide lectures, a case study book (with answers) to prompt classroom discussions, and exam questions. Visit abnormalchildpsychology.org.
Descriptions of Images and Figures
Back to Figure
The details of the graph are as follows:
The horizontal axis shows the different relationships amongst children.
The vertical axis shows the correlation between IQ scores from 0.0 to 0.9, in increments of 0.1.
The approximate correlation values for children living together are:
Monozygotic twins: 0.85
Dizygotic twins: 0.55
Biological siblings: 0.48
Parent and biological children: 0.4
Parent and adoptive children: 0.29
Unrelated children: 0.29.
The approximate correlation values for children living apart are:
Monozygotic twins: 0.75
Dizygotic twins: 0.35
Biological siblings: 0.25
Parent and biological children: 0.25
Parent and adoptive children: 0.0
Unrelated children: 0.0.
Back to Figure
The details of the graph are as follows:
The horizontal axis shows the environmental experience.
The vertical axis shows the probability of depression from 0.0 to 0.7, in increments of 0.1.
In cases of no maltreatment, the approximate probability of children with:
1 Two short alleles: 0.28;
2 One short, one long allele: 0.28;
3 Two long alleles: 0.28.
In cases of probable maltreatment, the approximate probability of children with:
1 Two short alleles: 0.45;
2 One short, one long allele: 0.38;
3 Two long alleles: 0.29.
In cases of severe maltreatment, the approximate probability of children with: