of anger, and social withdrawal. Some children show a range of affective displays, whereas others show very little emotional expression. The clinician is especially interested in whether the child’s affect fits his or her self-reported mood or the given situation. For example, a child who laughs while talking about a parent’s death displays incongruent affect.
The clinician assesses the child’s cognition in several ways. One aspect of cognition is thought content—that is, the subject matter of the child’s cognition. For example, some children are preoccupied with certain topics or hobbies, whereas other children’s thoughts are plagued by persistent worries or fears. In severe instances, children have delusions or bizarre thoughts that do not correspond to reality. Another aspect of cognition is thought process—that is, the way in which the child forms associations and solves problems. Thought process is usually inferred from the child’s speech. For example, the clinician observes whether the child’s speech is coherent, whether it is rapid and difficult to follow, or whether the child abruptly stops speaking in mid-conversation.
Other aspects of cognition include the child’s overall intelligence, attention and memory, and orientation. Orientation refers to the child’s awareness of himself, his surroundings, and current events. For example, a child involved in a car accident might become disoriented. Lack of orientation to person, place, and time can indicate serious cognitive impairment.
The final components of the child’s cognition are his insight and judgment. Insight refers to the degree to which the child recognizes that he might have a social, emotional, or behavioral problem. Youths with eating disorders and conduct problems often show poor insight; they often deny having problems. Judgment refers to the child’s understanding of the seriousness of his behavior problem and its impact on himself and others. Judgment also refers to the child’s ability to consider the consequences of his behavior before acting. ADHD and conduct problems are usually characterized by poor judgment (Sommers-Flanagan, 2018).
Let’s imagine that we interview Sara and her mother during her first session. Sara presents as an emotionally withdrawn girl who participated in the session only with reassurance from her mother. She lives with her mother, a dental hygienist, and her father, a cook who has been unable to work because of a stroke several months ago. Sara’s developmental history was unremarkable, although her mother described her as a “shy” and “needy” child who has always been reluctant to try new things. Sara’s physical health had been excellent until the beginning of this school year, when she began to experience physical symptoms. Academically, Sara has always lagged behind her classmates. However, she has never been tested for a learning disability. Sara admitted that she feels “uncomfortable” going to school but would not elaborate. However, she was able to identify several friends at school and described her teacher as “okay.” Sara was a member of her school’s soccer team but has been ineligible to play because of her absences. She has never been referred for therapy or prescribed medication.
We might administer the Kiddie-SADS to systematically assess Sara’s school refusal:
Was there ever a time when you had to be forced to go to school? Do you have worries about going to school? Tell me those feelings.
Do you ever worry that something bad might happen to you when you are away from home?
Do you ever worry that something bad might happen to your parents when you are at school?
Sara’s responses to these questions revealed frequent school refusal and worries that something bad might befall her parents while she is away. Her responses suggest that she might have an anxiety disorder associated with separating from loved ones.
Review
The diagnostic interview is the cornerstone of psychological assessment. The clinician establishes rapport with the family and gathers information about the family’s presenting problem, history, and current social–cultural context.
Many clinicians conduct a cultural formulation interview to understand the family’s concerns in light of their social and cultural background and values.
A mental status exam provides a quick snapshot of the child’s (1) appearance and actions, (2) emotions, and (3) cognitions.
How Do Psychologists Conduct Behavioral Observations?
Observation Methods
Behavioral observations are important to child assessment. Although parental reports of child behavior are useful, there is no substitute for the rich amount of information that can be gathered from watching children. Clinicians observe children in three ways (Greene & Ollendick, 2020). First, most clinicians observe children as they participate in the diagnostic interview. Clinicians might note children’s activity level, speech and language, emotional expressions, quality of interactions with parents, and other overt behavior. The shortcoming of informal observation is that children’s behavior in the clinic may not be representative of their behavior at home and school.
Second, many clinicians observe children performing analog tasks in the clinic. Analog tasks are designed to mimic real-life activities or situations. For example, a clinician might want to observe the interactions between a mother and her preschool-age child. The clinician might ask the dyad to play in the clinic playroom for 20 minutes. At the end of the play session, the clinician might ask the mother to tell the child to stop playing and to clean up the room. This analog task allows the clinician to observe firsthand how the mother issues commands to her child, how the child responds to her commands, and how the mother disciplines her child. Information gathered from analog observation can help the clinician understand how the pattern of interactions between parent and child might contribute to the child’s behavior problems.
Third, some clinicians conduct naturalistic observations. During math class, a school psychologist might monitor the activity level of a child suspected of having ADHD. The frequency of ADHD symptoms shown by the target child might be compared to the frequency of ADHD symptoms shown by other children in the class. The primary strength of naturalistic observation is that it permits clinicians to examine children’s behavior in everyday settings. The chief weakness of naturalistic observation is that it is time consuming. A second shortcoming of naturalistic observation is reactivity—that is, children might react to the fact that they are being observed and act in unnatural ways.
Figure 4.1 ■ Functional Analysis of Sara’s Behavior
Note: Functional analysis involves identifying the antecedents that elicit behavior problems and the consequences that maintain them over time. Based on Davison (2019).
Functional Analysis of Behavior
A functional analysis of behavior involves the identification of the antecedents and consequences of a child’s behavior based on either direct observation or detailed reports from others. Functional analysis is based on the notion that children’s behavior is purposeful—that is, their behavior serves a function (Kamphaus & Dever, 2018). In most cases, behavior serves to maximize rewards and minimize punishments. By carefully observing events that occur immediately before and immediately after a behavior, a clinician can determine the behavior’s purpose (Beavers, Iwata, & Lerman, 2013; Kratochwill, 2014).
To perform a functional analysis, the clinician operationally defines the child’s behavior problem in clear, observable terms. Next, the clinician gathers data regarding the antecedents and consequences of the target behavior. Antecedents refer to environmental conditions that immediately precede the behavior, whereas consequences refer to conditions that immediately follow the behavior and usually reinforce it. The clinician can use information about the antecedents and consequences of the child’s behavior to plan treatment