in my life to have benefited from many dedicated and inspirational science teachers. I want to thank Tom Poulson, my ecology professor, for opening the world of insects to me. Dr. Erv Small helped me launch a long and rewarding career in veterinary medicine. Thank you to all the caring and compassionate veterinarians I have had the privilege of working with over the years. The American Veterinary Medical Association and my colleagues on the Committee for Environmental Issues have been very supportive of our honey bee projects. Thank you to Gina Luke for your early encouragement. To my flight instructors, particularly Don Solms, who kept me doing my own waggle dancing in the sky. To all my beekeeping mentors and friends, a most sincere thank you for your wisdom. My love and appreciation to my ever‐supportive funny family and friends. My sons and Tom Kane are always in my heart.
Terry Ryan Kane DVM, MS
I would like to thank my colleagues at the University of Arizona College of Veterinary Medicine and Washington State University for their patience and encouragement during this project. I owe great thanks and love to my friends and family who have put up with this bee craziness for quite a while. Love to my mom, Paula Anderson, who encouraged writing from when I was old enough to hold a pencil and to Jerry Anderson and DuWayne Marshall for being there when I needed them. And to my patient and resourceful spouse Randy Faux, who still buys me bee equipment for Christmas.
Cynthia M. Faux DVM, PhD, DACVIM‐LA
Honey Bee Medicine: A One Health Challenge
Terry Ryan Kane
A2 Bee Vet, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
What a marvelous cooperative arrangement – plants and animals each inhaling each other's exhalations, a kind of planet‐wide mutual mouth to stoma resuscitation, the entire elegant cycle powered by a star 150 million kilometers away.
Carl Sagan
More than 120 million years ago, when dinosaurs walked the earth and would‐be mammals were no bigger than shrews, bees flew, and pollinated flowering plants. Bees coevolved with angiosperms over 100 million years, each contributing ingredients to this cooperative arrangement. This co‐evolution was so successful that bees are found on every continent of the world where flowers grow.
We have much to thank the bees for. Beyond the critical role they play in securing our food supply, bees continue to provide a variety of hive products. We harvest the honey they make from nectar, the wax they produce for comb, the pollen they collect and pack into cells for stored protein to feed their young, the propolis they collect from tree resins to line and protect their hives, and even the royal jelly, the “bee milk,” to feed larvae and produce their queen. We turn these into a variety of products: candles, salves, ointments, syrups, make‐up, hair products, medicines, etc.
Bees are amazing and unique. Tens of millions of forager bees may travel up to 6 km to find a food resource before flying home to their hive, communicating in the dark on vertical surfaces to their sister foragers how far away the food is, its value, and how to find it. These foragers utilize the sun's position and polarized light to determine direction with an internal clock/odometer to tell her sisters how far she flew between the food resource and the hive. Humans have almost no innate ability to measure direction and distance, as our huge investments in maps, compasses and now Global Positioning Systems attest. Bees have had this innate capability for tens of millions of years. Kart Von Frisch won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1973 for his discovery of the “waggle dance” of the bee. Recent data analytics on the waggle dances have proven how accurate bee navigation really is.
One Health Issue: Planetary Health (Biodiversity and Climate Change)
The One Health concept is not new to veterinary medicine, but it is most timely now that we are facing multiple critical issues that involve our profession. Veterinary Medicine's greatest contributions to One Health have been in public health, particularly emerging zoonotic diseases, but environmental health has been largely neglected and requires our equal attention, now more than ever. Honey bees, native bees, bumble bees, and many other pollinators are the biosensors of our ecosystem health. Insects are the most diverse multicellular group of organisms on the planet – over one million species have been described, so far. And while the sheer biodiversity of insect species helps to ensure the group's survival, many of our pollinator species are in jeopardy. The decline of bees, as well as other animal pollinators, are in the public's consciousness, largely due to scientists' warning and media attention. Our ecosystems are out of balance. Habitat loss, pests and pesticide use, emerging diseases, and the extremes of global climate change all contribute to the instabilities we are experiencing. Veterinarians are trained problem solvers, but first we must recognize the problem. It is time our profession acknowledges and works to mitigate the challenges that climate change is having on animals and plant life, on agriculture, on zoonotic diseases, and on our environment. Mother Nature is relentlessly forcing us to face the threats of climate change and we must pursue all efforts to limit warming to 1.5°C.
One Health Issue: Food Security
Honey bee and pollinator health is crucial to our food supply. The pollination of flowering plants is an essential ecosystem service that produces the variety of vegetables, fruits, nuts, and seeds which, in turn, provide the necessary nutrients to sustain us, wildlife, and farm animals. The pollination services of birds, bats, butterflies, beetles, moths, ants, wasps, and the like, are vital to food systems – and to life itself. Without this variety of pollinators, we would not have the plant biodiversity that wildlife requires, or healthy soil and air. Without those things, we can never achieve global food security.
The public is increasingly aware that pollinators and honey bees are in trouble and people want to help. Hobbyist or “backyarder” and sideliner beekeeping has never been more popular, and veterinarians will be called upon more and more as we educate ourselves and the beekeepers learn our worth.
It is estimated that by 2050 there may be 9.8 billion people on earth and that global agriculture may need to increase by 30–70% in some areas. How will we feed a future population of 10 billion people? How will land and water resources be shared? How will we mitigate the increasing impact of global climate change on agriculture? Veterinarians will play an essential role in solving these issues. Food safety, food security, and public health are part of our jobs as veterinarians.
The honey bee is our top managed pollinator because it is the only bee that forms large colonies that can be transported in hive boxes. North America has the second largest commercial bee industry in the world. Today, millions of hives, the majority of the North American bee herd, are transported thousands of miles by truckloads around the United States and Canada to pollinate our food crops. The commercial beekeeper's life is a hard one – very labor intensive and with the new regulations, the spread of disease, increased fuel and transportation costs, and labor shortages, we are obliged to familiarize ourselves with their trade. Pollination services are a multi‐billion‐dollar industry.
Honey bees get the most “buzz” but actually some native bees are more efficient pollinators for some plants. Yes, honey bees are now considered livestock because we consume their products, but as far as getting pollen from one flower to another, honey bees are only one of a myriad of players. Native bees do not live in hives or colonies but in underground burrows. They come in all sizes and colors, and can be fuzzy, shiny, or metallic. They aren't as tidy, they don't pack pollen in little pouches, and they are messy. Farmers and producers have noted that when native bees are co‐pollinating with the honey bees, production is even better. New management in Integrated Crop Pollination uses a combination of native bees and honey bees with farm practice tools, like no‐till and cover crops, to increase production.
One Health Issue: The Global Epidemic of Antimicrobial Resistance
There is no doubt that antibiotic use improved the health of people and