for the management of Antarctica. Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings - the 18th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in Japan in April 1993. Currently, there are 42 treaty member nations: 26 consultative and 16 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 19 nonclaimant nations. The US and some other nations that have made no claims have reserved the right to do so. The US does not recognize the claims of others. The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), the US, and Russia. Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), and Ukraine (1992). Article 1: area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose Article 2: freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue Article 3: free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the UN and other international agencies Article 4: does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force Article 5: prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes Article 6: includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south Article 7: treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given Article 8: allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states Article 9: frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations Article 10: treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty Article 11: disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ Article 12, 13, 14: deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations Other agreements: more than 170 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964); Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but was subsequently rejected; in 1991 the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed and awaits ratification; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas; it also prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research; nine parties have ratified Protocol as of April 1994 Legal system: US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute: The taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected or scientific areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and 1 year in prison. The Departments of Treasury, Commerce, Transportation, and Interior share enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95–541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs, Room 5801, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more information contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230 (703–306-1031). Overview: No economic activity at present except for fishing off the coast and small-scale tourism, both based abroad.
@Antarctica, Communications
Ports:
none; offshore anchorage only at most coastal stations
Airports:
42 landing facilities at different locations operated by 15 national
governments party to the Treaty; one additional air facility operated
by commercial (nongovernmental) tourist organization; helicopter pads
at 28 of these locations; runways at 10 locations are gravel, sea ice,
glacier ice, or compacted snow surface suitable for wheeled fixed-wing
aircraft; no paved runways; 16 locations have snow-surface skiways
limited to use by ski-equipped planes—11 runways/skiways 1,000 to
3,000 m, 3 runways/skiways less than 1,000 m, 5 runways/skiways
greater than 3,000 m, and 7 of unspecified or variable length;
airports generally subject to severe restrictions and limitations
resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; airports do
not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the respective
governmental or non-governmental operating organization required for
landing
@Antarctica, Defense Forces
Note:
the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such
as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the
carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of
weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment for
scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes
@Antigua and Barbuda, Geography
Location:
Caribbean, in the eastern Caribbean Sea, about 420 km east-southeast
of Puerto Rico
Map references:
Central America and the Caribbean, Standard Time Zones of the World
Area:
total area:
440 sq km
land area:
440 sq km
comparative area:
slightly less than 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
note:
includes Redonda
Land boundaries:
0 km
Coastline:
153 km
Maritime claims:
contiguous zone:
24 nm
exclusive economic zone:
200 nm
territorial sea:
12 nm
International disputes:
none
Climate:
tropical marine; little seasonal temperature variation
Terrain:
mostly low-lying limestone and coral islands with some higher volcanic
areas
Natural resources:
negligible; pleasant climate fosters tourism
Land use: