wolves and bears in the mountains 100 miles beyond the convenience of the paved road. My formative high school years were spent at The Millbrook School for Boys, a boarding school in the rolling hills of Dutchess County, in upstate New York. There, my science teacher, and founder of The Millbrook School Zoo, Dr. Frank Trevor took me under his wing, teaching me scientific process, as well as the responsible care of the wild zoo inhabitants that we managed. In the process of my maturation, I held summer jobs traveling throughout the west as a livestock inspector for Oppenheimer Industries (OI), the largest livestock management company in the United States, headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri, and managing cattle in 14 states. CEO of OI, Larry Oppenheimer, gave me freedom and independent responsibility as well as access to the genetic information of his prized Hereford show herd via the first computerized herd program which was headquartered in Kansas City. This experience furthered my interest in the scientific process of understanding the power of genetics. I also worked as a farmhand for Ed Behrens, President of the Dairy Herd Improvement Association of New York State, at his Highland Hills Dairy Farm, where Ed continued my tutelage in uncompromised and thorough work ethic, working the land daily from before dawn to after dark.
My infatuation with the management of animals continued in my late teens and early 20 years, as I worked as a wilderness guide in the Bob Marshall Wilderness in northwest Montana and again in the Pipestone Wilderness in Alberta, Canada where I rode 2500 miles in the summer of 1956. At Cornell University in the New York Veterinary School, Professor Dr. Steven Roberts mentored me. Among other helpful attributes, he was on the Cornell veterinary school admissions committee, coach and veterinary caretaker of the Cornell polo team horses, and author and professor of equine obstetrics. I played polo for him, managed the team after an injury and received guidance from him before taking my job as the livestock inspector. Dr. Francis Fox, professor of livestock medicine and surgery at Cornell imprinted on me the importance of maintaining my skills in physical diagnosis, even in the presence of rapidly advancing automated technology. Throughout all of this, my father impressed upon me, by example, the importance of being ethical in my many pursuits. I am appreciative to all of these people, and others, who helped to shape my personal life as well as my professional profile that has spanned more than 55 years in a very rewarding professional career in the veterinary medical profession, culminating in 40 years of immersion in the evolution of advanced dental care for animals, and most lately, in joining Peter Emily in his crusade to help captive animals in the many sanctuaries, zoos and animal parks of the world.
Introduction
The purpose of this book is to educate the reader as to the essence of therapeutic modalities and pitfalls when performing dentistry on captive animals in sanctuaries, zoos or in the field. To cover every aspect of dentistry, or every species encountered, is beyond the scope of this book. We have included the most frequent species and dental pathologies that clinicians will see and be asked to treat. We hope this work will expand wildlife animal dental knowledge, resulting in increased success of dental procedures in the field.
It should be emphasized that dentistry and oral surgery is similar to other veterinary disciplines in that success of a clinician is dependent on knowledge, expertise, equipment, and patient compliance. The same ingredients make a good dentist as do a good surgeon, and the treatment for a number of oral conditions involve surgery. There are unique endodontic morphologies present in various species, especially large felids, that make it essential that the practitioner obtain hands‐on tutoring before attempting endodontic therapy for large felids. One should be well rested, well prepared, well equipped and well skilled, especially before attempting to treat wild animals in zoological or sanctuary settings, where often, because of anesthetic risk, there will be only one opportunity to perform therapy. Well rested is self‐explanatory. An alert, aware and energetic individual is one who can provide a smoothly executed procedure. A well‐prepared individual is one who knows the protocol and instrumentation of planned procedures, as well as that of alternative procedures that might be required. Skill comes with experience, and experience comes with practice. Additionally, the well‐prepared clinician will be well equipped. Using the appropriate instruments, well maintained, will help to lessen procedure time, minimize patient discomfort and reassure the clinician that they have performed a proper procedure in the best way possible.
Through the skill of veterinary dentists, enhanced comfort can be achieved for these animals who cannot help themselves, and improved longevity can be realized by the reduction of chronic oral pain and stress experienced by these animals who are less often treated.
Increased knowledge of the species‐specific anatomy, physiology and oral function will be invaluable in achieving proper diagnosis and treatment. This does not reduce the importance of hands‐on experience, as each case and each animal is unique. For example, the vast majority of tiger upper canines have a bulbous apical root canal morphology with an extended apical delta at the root end terminus. Thus, treatment for each species will be different, and will require adaptation in the field.
Wildlife dentistry is infrequently encountered in veterinary practice. The diverse dental findings as to endodontic morphology, occlusal, and radicular forms, tooth sizes, and numbers of teeth all complicate exotic animal dentistry. Difficulty in obtaining routine oral examination to intercept developing problems and provide routine dental maintenance is a large factor in maintaining or regaining oral health. Additionally, poor financial rewards, lack of exotic animal dental knowledge and education, all contribute to the challenges of providing successful oral care for these animals.
All the dental disciplines practiced in human and small animal dentistry can be practiced in exotic animal or zoo dentistry. However, the many dental morphological and pathological differences seen in the various species create treatment challenges that can extend far beyond routine procedures. Dental problems can be multiple, complex, and often unseen in domestic small animal dentistry. Therapy can be complicated by limited oral access in some species. Most zookeepers are untrained in recognition of developing dental problems. This results in advanced dental pathology before the condition becomes clinically evident. Because of advanced levels of pathology, therapy is often more difficult and with uncertain prognosis for success.
Zoo dentistry includes many and varied species. New technologies are now beginning to be seen, or at least contemplated, in the treatment of some of the large species. If we consider, for example, that an elephant tusk is an upper lateral incisor, with pulp tissue and an open apex, then we can pursue the possibility of endodontic therapy for affected tusks rather than the very difficult procedure of tusk extraction.
Avian species primarily present with lost or fractured beak segments or beak malocclusion resulting from poor nutrition. Replacement of lost beak segments can be performed with dental acrylic, threaded pins, ligature wire and cyanoacrylate. Congenital or traumatic malocclusion or “cross beak” is not uncommon, especially in psittacine birds. Active rubber orthodontic ligatures and threaded pin anchors can sometimes effectively correct this form of malocclusion. Like birds, the most common dental problem seen in reptiles is oral trauma, and the same principles of repair as employed in avian dentistry can be utilized. For example, turtles, can present with “beak” fracture. Dental acrylics, threaded wire, and cyanoacrylate can rehabilitate these animals. Though not a dental procedure, the repair of fractured turtle shells with dental materials is also a commonly successful and practical procedure.
An excellent example of advanced pathology with limited therapy and success is seen in mandibular and maxillary abscesses in herbivores and ruminants. Their dentition is primarily selenodont, which has parallel rows of crescent‐shaped occlusal ridges that run in a mesial to distal direction. Selenodont dentition is the principal dental form in the order Artiodactyla, which includes most sheep, cattle, antelope, deer, camels, boars, and hogs. However, the animals most affected with mandibular/maxillary abscesses are the Marsupialia, primarily kangaroos and wallabies. Their molar form is a rather primitive tribosphenic form – that is, having three basic cusps. They are the protocone (the lingual cusp of the upper molar – it is generally narrow), the metacone (the posterior buccal cusp), and the paracone (the anterior buccal cusp). There are accessory cusps on metacone and paracone, termed metaconule