and family, etc.
Remember, leadership and a happy life begins with you. Set your goals and lead yourself to a wonderful life!
Patricia Kelly Vana
Professor Emerita
Purdue University Northwest
Hammond, Indiana
Contingency Approach
Another approach to leadership is contingency theory. Contingency theory acknowledges that factors in the environment influence outcomes as much as leadership style and that leader effectiveness is contingent upon or depends upon something other than the leader's behavior. The premise is that different leader behavior patterns will be effective in different situations.
Fielder's Contingency Theory
Fielder (1967) is credited with the development of the contingency model of leadership effectiveness. Fielder's theory of leadership effectiveness views the pattern of leader behavior as dependent upon the interaction of the personality of the leader and the needs of the situation. The needs of the situation or how favorable the situation is toward the leader involves leader‐member relationships, the degree of task structure, and the leader's position of power (Fielder, 1967). Leader‐member relations are the feelings and attitudes of followers regarding acceptance, trust, and credibility of the leader. Good leader‐member relations exist when followers respect, trust, and have confidence in the leader. Poor leader‐member relations reflect distrust, a lack of confidence and respect, and dissatisfaction with the leader by the followers
Task structure refers to the degree to which work is defined, with specific procedures, explicit directions, and goals. High task structure involves routine, predictable, clearly defined work tasks. Low task structure involves work that is not routine, predictable, or clearly defined, such as creative, artistic, or qualitative research activities.
Position power is the degree of formal authority and influence associated with the leader. High position power is favorable for the leader, and low position power is unfavorable. When all dimensions—leader‐member relations, task structure, and position power—are high, the situation is favorable to the leader. When these dimensions are low, the situation is not favorable to the leader. In both circumstances, Fielder showed that a task‐directed leader, concerned with task accomplishment, was effective. When the range of favorableness is intermediate or moderate, a human relations leader, concerned about people, was most effective. These situations need a leader with interpersonal and relationship skills to foster group achievement. Fielder's contingency theory is an approach that matches the organizational situation to the most favorable leadership style for that situation.
Situational Approach
Situational leadership theory addresses the follower characteristics in relation to effective leader behavior.
Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Theory
Whereas Fielder examines the situation, Hersey and Blanchard consider follower readiness as a factor in determining leadership style. Rather than using the words, initiating structure and contingency, they use the words, task behavior and relationship behavior. Task behavior is used to identify behaviors focused on tasks. The words, relationship behavior, are used to identify behaviors focused on relationships
High task behavior and low relationship behavior is called a telling leadership style. A high task, high relationship style is called a selling leadership style. A low task and high relationship style is a participating leadership style. A low task and low relationship style is a delegating leadership style.
Follower readiness, called maturity, is assessed to select one of the four leadership styles for a situation. For example, according to Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory (2000), groups with low maturity, whose members are unable or unwilling to participate or are unsure, need a leader to use a telling leadership style to provide direction and close supervision. The selling leadership style is a match for groups with low to moderate maturity who are initially unable to do the task but willing and confident and need clear direction and supportive feedback to get the task done. Participating leadership style is recommended for groups with moderate to high maturity who are able but unwilling to do a task or are unsure and who need support and encouragement. The leader should use a delegating leadership style with groups of followers with high maturity who are able to do a task and ready to participate and can engage in the task without direction or support.
An additional aspect of situational leadership theory is the idea that the leader not only changes leadership style according to followers' needs but also develops followers over time to increase their level of maturity (Schindler, 2015). Use of these four leadership styles helps a nurse manager lead effectively and assign work to others.
Path‐Goal Theory
In this leadership approach, the leader works to motivate followers and influence goal accomplishment. The seminal author on path‐goal theory is Robert House (1971). By using the appropriate style of leadership for the situation (i.e., directive, supportive, participative, or achievement oriented), the leader makes the path toward the goal easier for the follower. The directive style of leadership provides structure through direction and authority, with the leader focusing on the task and getting the job done. The supportive style of leadership is relationship oriented, with the leader providing encouragement, interest, and attention. Participative leadership means that the leader focuses on involving followers in the decision‐making process. The achievement‐oriented style provides high structure and direction as well as high support through consideration behavior. The leadership style is matched to the situational characteristics of the followers, such as the desire for authority, the extent to which the control of goal achievement is internal or external, and the ability of the follower to be involved. The leadership style is also matched to the situational factors in the environment, including the routine nature or complexity of the task, the power associated with the leader's position, and the work group relationship. This alignment of leadership style with the needs of followers is motivating and believed to enhance performance and satisfaction. The path‐goal theory is based on expectancy theory, which holds that people are motivated when they, (a) believe they are able to carry out the work, (b) think their contribution will lead to the expected outcome, and (c) believe that the rewards for their efforts are valued and meaningful (Northouse, 2018).
Substitutes for Leadership
Substitutes for leadership are variables that may influence followers to the same extent as the leader's behavior. Kerr and Jermier (1978) investigated situational variables and identified substitutes that eliminate the need for leader behavior and other aspects that act as neutralizers and nullify the effects of the leader's behavior. Some of these variables include follower characteristics, such as the presence of structured routine tasks, the amount of feedback provided by the task, and the presence of intrinsic satisfaction in the work; and organizational characteristics, such as the presence of a cohesive group, a formal organization, a rigid adherence to rules, and low position power. For example, an individual's experience substitutes for task‐direction leader behavior (Kerr & Jermier, 1978). Nurses and other professionals with a great deal of experience already have knowledge and judgment and do not need direction and supervision to perform their work. Thus, their experience serves as a leadership substitute. Another substitute for leader behavior is intrinsic satisfac tion that emerges from just doing the work. Intrinsic satisfaction occurs frequently among nurses when they provide care to patients and families. Intrinsic satisfaction substitutes for the support and encouragement of relationship‐oriented leader behavior.
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