technique or the use of substances to improve exercise performance and/or body image of an athlete illegally. The most common drugs are androgens that exert their effect on both of the aspects mentioned above; this explains the reason behind their wide diffusion reported in almost 10% of adult gym users, 40% of body builders and 70% of power lifters. A randomized trial evaluated the effects of supraphysiological doses of exogenous testosterone among 43 healthy young men: those given T had greater increases in muscle size in their arms and legs and in strength in the bench-press and squatting exercises than those given placebo, independently from training [97]. It is worth noting that T exerts its effect on all types of muscular fibres, including the heart: chronic exposure to doping is associated with concentric cardiac hypertrophy, dilated cardiomyopathy, fibrosis, and increased risk of acute myocardial infarction and fatal ventricular arrhythmias [98].
Conclusions
Androgens exert a relevant role in determining body weight and composition, as confirmed by preclinical and clinical studies. In animal models and cell cultures, androgens have been shown to inhibit adipogenic lineage and lipid storage, while favouring muscle cell hypertrophy. In clinical studies in men, low androgens have been associated with increased FM and reduced FFM, both corrected after T replacement therapy; high androgen levels lead to increase FFM and reduce FM. Differences are described depending on sex and the type of adipose tissue (VAT or SAT).
Disclosure Statement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed a potential conflict of interest.
Author Contributions
V.A.G. and M.C. performed the literature search, analysis and manuscript drafting. All authors critically reviewed and approved the final version.
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