miss a single prayer in giving birth to her son, ‘Umar. Like his mother, ‘Umar was prone to fasting from birth and refused to nurse in the daylight hours during Ramadan.97 Jaara Buso, the mother of Ahmadu Bamba, had a reputation for saintliness that “continued to be effective even after her death, when she mystically intervened many times to succor and reassure her son, then under French custody.”98 The mother of Ibrahim Niasse, ‘A’isha Niasse, foresaw her son’s saintly trajectory while he was still in the womb, dreaming that the moon fell from the sky into her body.99 Later, when her son was struggling to memorize the Qur’an, she procured for him some holy zamzam water from Mecca and told him to drink it and ask God to help him.100
Brief reference to prominent female intellectuals within these Sufi movements points to their importance, and sometimes unapologetic public profiles. Women were central to the Islamic education program that undergirded ‘Uthman bin Fudi’s Sokoto Caliphate. Muslim women scholars were the front line in the intellectual showdown between Hausa Bori practices and Islamic learning, particularly with regards to medicine and healing.101 Muhammad Bello wrote a book about women in Sufism, called Kitab al-nasiha (Book of Advice), which Ibn Fudi’s daughter, Nana Asma’u, versified in Hausa at her brother’s request.102 A prolific writer, Nana Asma’u offered herself as an example for all Muslims:
If anyone asks you who composed this song, say
That it is Nana, daughter of the Shehu, who loves Muhammad
You should firmly resolve, friends, to follow her
And thus you will follow exactly the Sunna of Muhammad.103
Such writing activities were, of course, secondary to the public teaching positions that women held in the Sokoto Caliphate. Nana Asma’u in fact trained a “cadre of literate, itinerant women teachers (jajis) who disseminated her instructive poetic works among the masses.”104
The daughters of Shaykh Ibrahim Niasse were similarly involved in the proliferation of Islamic learning. One of the most prolific scholars has been Ruqaya Niasse (b. 1930), three of whose Arabic works have already been translated into English.105 Sayyid ‘Ali Cissé, Shaykh Ibrahim’s designated khalifa, attested to Ruqaya’s erudition, which is displayed in her book Tanbih al-bint al-muslima (Motherly Advice for the Muslim Girl): “[The book] selected the loftiest pearls and the most beneficial teachings. This demonstrates that this exceptional lady has herself acquired these noble traits.”106 Shaykh Ibrahim granted his daughter unlimited authorization in the Tijaniyya when she was only twenty-eight, writing, “May God bless anyone who takes knowledge from her, even if it is one single letter.” Her father ordered Ruqaya to travel in order to teach the Islamic sciences, saying in a letter to her in 1971, “I forbid ignorant and greedy people to travel. As for you, you are authorized! Wherever you set foot shall be a blessed place.”107 A favorite theme of Shaykha Ruqaya’s writings was the intellectual capabilities of Muslim women. She thus reminded her students of Muslim scholarly exemplars, such as ‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr, the wife of the Prophet Muhammad, in emphasizing the equality of women and men:
She was an amazing example, for she would teach recitation of the Qur’an and religious knowledge, such that the Prophet—blessings and peace be upon him—would say about her: “Take half of your religion from this young lady.” Urwa ibn Zubayr said of her: “I have not seen anyone more knowledgeable of law (fiqh), medicine, or poetry than ‘A’isha.” She transmitted from the Prophet—blessings and peace upon him—more than two thousand hadith. Therefore, do not diminish the importance of emulating these noble women who are our mothers. . . . I am only telling all of this to make you aware that you have equal access to the states of perfection as males do. Islam equalizes men and women, and Allah has obligated the seeking of knowledge upon all Muslims, male and female. So beware of neglecting half of the community (umma) of our master Muhammad.108
Ruqaya, like her renowned sisters, Maryam and Fatima, was of course trained directly by their father. Shaykh Ibrahim’s eldest daughter, Fatima, the mother of the community’s current Imam, Cheikh Tijani Cissé, remembers her father ordering her and other women of the community to leave household chores to come study with him works of history, poetry, and Arabic grammar.109
Women in the Sufi communities considered here were thus integrally involved in the production of Islamic scholarship. They were students, teachers, and writers. They studied with both men and women, taught both men and women, and their writings were well received by both men and women. We hope that subsequent work can make some of these writings available in a similar format to that of this book, allowing women scholars to speak for themselves in articulating their place within the Islamic intellectual history of Africa.
Structure of the Book
Jihad of the Pen, the Sufi Literature of West Africa attempts to provide a representative sampling of the core ideas of each scholar, as well as the different genres in which they wrote. All were capable writers in classical Arabic, and wrote in both prose and verse. This volume thus includes both prose pieces and poetry. Some of these works were meant as teaching texts, to be memorized and elaborated on in the shaykh’s circle of students. Others were written in private, and only published later. Sometimes, writers targeted external audiences: those that doubted or disparaged certain teachings of the community. But whatever their immediate context, all of the texts included here have become constitutive of the curriculum of students, albeit at various levels of ability, within the communities in question. Even if the students cannot always read Arabic, they are exposed to these texts through the oral translation and explanation of local scholars.
This volume enjoys the contribution of a variety of translators. Such diversity can provide fresh ways of reading similar ideas, but the reader should be aware of stylistic differences between translators that a collection such as this cannot hope to avoid. Some translators preferred the use of English rhyme in the translation of rhyming Arabic poetry, for example, while others relied on rhythm (or simply prose) to communicate the force of the original verse. Otherwise, this volume attempts to remain consistent in the adequate use of footnotes and in providing transliterations of Arabic words where appropriate. We have provided a short introduction to individual texts in order to give an immediate context for its production, as well as to alert the reader to alternative translations available elsewhere.
Finally, we are aware that this volume is not an exhaustive record of the prolific writing of the individual scholars considered here, nor does it include all the notable Sufi scholars of West Africa. With regard to the latter, notable omissions include Muhammad al-Yadali,110 whose works were particularly influential for Ahmadu Bamba and Ibrahim Niasse. There is also Mukhtar Kunti,111 whom Niasse also cited liberally and whose Qadiriya legacy influenced ‘Uthman bin Fudi and Ahmadu Bamba. Finally, the Senegalese contemporaries of Bamba—Malik Sy (d. 1922) and ‘Abdallah Niasse (d. 1922), both of the Tijaniyya—wrote important works on spiritual training (tarbiya) and poetry in praise of the Prophet, and founded saintly communities of their own.112 While not exhaustive, we hope that this work makes a lasting contribution to understanding the intellectual production of West African Sufism.
Shaykh ‘Uthman bin Muhammad bin ‘Uthman bin Salih (1754–1817) was the founder of the Sokoto Empire, the largest and most populous precolonial state in nineteeth-century sub-Saharan Africa.1 It ultimately spanned much of modern Nigeria, Niger, and Chad, encompassing several million people within it.2 Although Shehu ‘Uthman was famously known as Dan Fodio in Hausa, among his Fula-speaking compatriots he was called Bi Fudi; among his many Arab and Tuareg students, he was known as Ibn Fuduye’.3