J.E. (1989). Recovering selenium and tellurium from copper refinery slimes. JOM 41 (7): 33–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03220269.
24 Holmes, A.B. and Gu, F.X. (2016). Emerging nanomaterials for the application of selenium removal for wastewater treatment. Environmental Science: Nano. 3 (5): 982–996. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6en00144k.
25 Joannopoulos, J.D. (1979). International conference on the physics of selenium and tellurium. In: The Electronic Structure of Crystalline Phases of Se and Te (eds. E. Gerlach and P. Grosse), 2–11. Dordrecht: Springer https://doi.org/10.1007/978‐3‐642‐81398‐6.
26 Lee, R.E. and Duffield, F.V. (1979). Sources of environmentally important metals in the atmosphere. In: Ultratrace Metal Analysis in Biological Sciences and Environment (ed. R.E. Lee, Jr. and F.V. Duffield), 146–171. Dordrecht: Springer. doi: 10.1021/ba‐1979‐0172.ch011.
27 Malisa, E.P. (2001). The behaviour of selenium in geological processes. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 23 (2): 137–158. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010908615486.
28 Mechora, Š. (2019). Selenium as a protective agent against pests: a review. Plants 8 (8): 262. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8080262.
29 Papp, L.V., Lu, J., Holmgren, A., and Khanna, K.K. (2007). From selenium to selenoproteins: synthesis, identity, and their role in human health. Antioxidants and Redox Signaling 9 (7): 775–806. https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2007.1528.
30 Ralston, N.V.C., Ralston, C.R., Blackwell, J.L. III, and Raymond, L.R. (2008). Dietary and tissue selenium in relation to methylmercury toxicity. NeuroToxicology 29 (5): 802–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2008.07.007.
31 Rashkov, S., Monev, M., and Atanassov, N. (1983). Some possibilities for the use of stressed cathodically hydrogenated electrolytic nickel coatings for the deposition of microporous and microcracked chromium plates. Surface Technology https://doi.org/10.1016/0376‐4583(83)90051‐1.
32 Rayman, M.P. (2008). Food‐chain selenium and human health: emphasis on intake. British +Journal of Nutrition https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114508939830.
33 Sakizadeh, M., Sharafabadi, F.M., Shayegan, E., and Ghorbani, H. (2016). Concentrations and soil‐to‐plant transfer factor of selenium in soil and plant species from an arid area. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 44 (5) https://doi.org/10.1088/1755‐1315/44/5/052027.
34 Sanmartin, C. and Plano, D. (2012). Selenium and clinical trials: new therapeutic evidence for multiple diseases. Current Medicinal Chemistry 18 (30): 4635–4650. https://doi.org/10.2174/092986711797379249.
35 Santhanam, C.J., Lunt, R.R., Johnson, S.L. et al. (1979). Health and environmental impacts of increased generation of coal ash and FGD sludges. Environmental Health Perspectives 33: 131–157. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1638118/pdf/envhper00478‐0130.pdf.
36 Shah, P., Strezov, V., Stevanov, C., and Nelson, P.F. (2007). Speciation of arsenic and selenium in coal combustion products. Energy and Fuels 21 (2): 506–512. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef0604083.
37 Sharma, V.K., Sharma, V.K., McDonald, T.J., and Sohn, M. (2017). Assessment of toxicity of selenium and cadmium selenium quantum dots: a review. Chemosphere https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.08.130.
38 Skeaff, J.M. and Dubreuil, A.A. (1997). Calculated 1993 emission factors of trace metals for Canadian non‐ferrous smelters. Atmospheric Environment 31 (10): 1449–1457. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352‐2310(96)00319‐6.
39 Stadtman, T.C. (1974). Selenium biochemistry. Science 183 (4128): 915–922. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.183.4128.915.
40 USGS (2020) Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020, United States Geological Survey. Available at: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020.pdf.
41 Waitkins, G.R., Bearse, A.E., and Shutt, R. (1942). Industrial utilization of selenium and tellurium. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry https://doi.org/10.1021/ie50392a002.
42 Wall, E.J. (1924). Photographic Facts and Formulas. Boston, MA: Springer.
43 Wessjohann, L.A., Schneider, A., Abbas, M., and Brandt, W. (2007). Selenium in chemistry and biochemistry in comparison to sulfur. Biological Chemistry https://doi.org/10.1515/BC.2007.138.
44 Weyl, W.A. (1981). Coloured Glasses. Sheffield: Society of Glass Technology.
45 Whanger, P.D. (2004). Selenium and its relationship to cancer: an update. British Journal of Nutrition 91 (1): 11–28. https://doi.org/10.1079/bjn20031015.
46 WHO (2012) Potable water specification, 2e. Rwanda Bureau of Standards, Kigali.
47 Willig, F.K. (2014). Selenium Recovery in Precious Metal Technology. Thesis for a Degree Project in Engineering Chemistry. (February). Available at: http://umu.diva‐portal.org/smash/get/diva2:703367/FULLTEXT01.pdf.
48 World Health Organization (2011). Selenium in Drinking‐water Background, vol. 2, 7. WHO Press. doi: WHO/HSE/WSH/10.01/14.
4 Selenium Toxicity in Domestic Animals: Sources, Toxicopathology, and Control Measure
Arup Giri, Puneet Ranjan, and Vijay K. Bharti
DRDO‐Defence Institute of High Altitude Research, Leh, Ladakh, India
4.1 Introduction
Selenium (Se), a semi‐metal or metalloid was discovered by Swedish chemist Berzelius in 1818 during the production of sulfuric acid. It was named after the Greek moon goddess, Selene. Se is a semi‐metal as it is present together with oxygen and sulfur and has similar chemical characteristics to S (Lenz and Lens 2009). The atomic number of Se is 34. It produces rotting horseradish odor during heating. In fact, it is not present in nature in its pure form. It is found in water in the form of selenites and selenates. This is a trace element because it constitutes just 0.00008% of the Earth's crust (Bennett 1983; Bednarek and Bik 1994).
Selenium (Se) is being an essential micronutrient (Lu and Holmgren 2009) required for livestock animals for better cardiac and skeletal muscle growth, fertility, immune status, anticarcinogenic, antiviral, anti‐inflammatory, chemopreventive, antiparasitic, etc. (Leibovitz et al. 1990; Rayman 2000; Guisbiers et al. 2016; Peng et al. 2016; Stolzoff and Webster 2016; El‐Ghazaly et al. 2017; Guisbiers et al. 2017; Maiyo and Singh 2017). It has now become toxic due to poisoning, selenium injection, fodders grown on selenium‐toxic land, and indiscriminate minerals supplementation feeding. As early