Grazing impacts have been studied in thousands of experiments wh...FIGURE 8.7 Elk allocate time across landscapes in the summer in Rocky Mounta...FIGURE 8.8 The species composition of plots in an evergreen, broadleaved for...FIGURE 8.9 The basal area (and biomass) of a three‐century‐old forest in Ma...FIGURE 8.10 A 90 000‐ha landscape in Sequoia National Park in California, US...FIGURE 8.11 A broadleaved forest in Japan showed increasing stem biomass an...FIGURE 8.12 Transpiration varies from less than 200 mm yr−1 at low el...FIGURE 8.13 The pattern of gaps across the Cedar Creek watershed in western...FIGURE 8.14 Most of the ground area beneath tropical forests receives only a...FIGURE 8.15 The edge effect of a clearcut adjacent to an intact forest depe...FIGURE 8.16 An outbreak of spruce budworms created dead patches and edges i...FIGURE 8.17 A map of a hectare of a Scots pine forest in Finland, showing cl...FIGURE 8.18 An old growth forest in western Washington, USA averaged almost ...FIGURE 8.19 The species, diameter, and location of all stems were mapped in ...FIGURE 8.20 The map of species, sizes, and locations can lead to other map...FIGURE 8.21 Statistical analyses can examine how clumped, random, or unifor...FIGURE 8.22 Riparian forests differ from upland ecosystems in dry regions, w...FIGURE 8.23 A large gradient in soils from upland to riparian locations in F...FIGURE 8.24 Clonal plantations of eucalyptus are some of the most uniform f...FIGURE 8.25 The probable risk of exotic plant encroachment was estimated ac...FIGURE 8.26 The pieces of the puzzle include thick‐barked old trees that su...
10 Chapter 9FIGURE 9.1 A classic story of forest change in the Rocky Mountains begins wi...FIGURE 9.2 The ponderosa pine forests in the Fort Valley Experimental Forest...FIGURE 9.3 After 20 years with no grazing, the impact of heavy grazing by li...FIGURE 9.4 Henry Thoreau measured the width of the first 50 years of growth...FIGURE 9.5 Tree rings contain information that can be extracted with dendro...FIGURE 9.6 Tree rings reveal the impact of an outbreak of the fungal pathoge...FIGURE 9.7 Sixty to eighty trees of each of three species were cored in a 20...FIGURE 9.8 The annual growth of eight giant sequoias was determined based o...FIGURE 9.9 Photos from Cooper's research plots in Glacier Bay, Alaska, USA. ...FIGURE 9.10 Benches are created on river floodplains, and newly deposited se...FIGURE 9.11 The trend in tree growth for lodgepole pine forests in Yellowst...FIGURE 9.12 The growth of young forests increases as roots and leaves increa...FIGURE 9.13 Stem production of a eucalyptus plantation in Hawaii, USA declin...FIGURE 9.14 Growth of forests across Sweden increased consistently by about ...FIGURE 9.15 A total of 250 years of change are illustrated in these diorama ...FIGURE 9.16 Deforestation removed two‐thirds of Massachusetts' forests withi...FIGURE 9.17 Land use in the Belgian Ardennes changed the forests in major wa...FIGURE 9.18 The growth of an individual tree is constrained by unavoidable, ...FIGURE 9.19 The vegetation in a 73 km2 watershed in Yellowstone National Pa...
11 Chapter 10FIGURE 10.1 Insects (and other arthropods) comprise a large part of the spec...FIGURE 10.2 The risk of wind damage to trees and forests can be examined in...FIGURE 10.3 Severe winds break the stems of well‐rooted trees (left, lodgepo...FIGURE 10.4 Hurricane Hugo blew across Puerto Rico as a Category 4 storm (w...FIGURE 10.5 A tornado in Massachusetts, USA in 2011 toppled most of the lar...FIGURE 10.6 The storm Lothar had winds as high as 50 m s−1 (200 km hrFIGURE 10.7 An analysis of over 200 forest inventory plots documented the ec...FIGURE 10.8 Hurricane Maria stormed across Puerto Rico in 2017, dropping 10...FIGURE 10.9 Airborne lidar images of Puerto Rico forests before (upper) an...FIGURE 10.10 Most of the non‐harvest mortality of forests across Europe res...FIGURE 10.11 Hurricanes occur frequently on and near Jamaica, but the storm...FIGURE 10.12 The photo on the left (10 x 10 km) shows a 150‐year...FIGURE 10.13 Bark beetles harm trees primarily by interrupting water flow f...FIGURE 10.14 Larger trees may be more susceptible, or less susceptible, to bark...FIGURE 10.15 A four‐decade experiment examined the effects of repeated thin...FIGURE 10.16 Across the Rocky Mountains in the USA, tree deaths from mountain...FIGURE 10.17 Twenty‐five watersheds across the Rocky Mountains in the USA had...FIGURE 10.18 This picture of the “red hand of death” comes from...FIGURE 10.19 A set of 20 forests in southeastern Wyoming, USA were dominat...FIGURE 10.20 Treatments were applied across 12 sites where dominant lodgepol...FIGURE 10.21 Across the western USA, several species of bark beetles showed...FIGURE 10.22 Old‐growth forests of spruce and fir, and of lodgepole pine, e...FIGURE 10.23 Avalanches are major events in some mountainous areas. An aval...
12 Chapter 11FIGURE 11.1 Cork oak in Portugal is a prime example of a fire‐adapted tree w...FIGURE 11.2 The thick bark of large ponderosa pine trees protects the growin...FIGURE 11.3 Indexes of risks from fire can be created by combining multiple...FIGURE 11.4 Some trees sprout new branches and leaves from buds in the camb...FIGURE 11.5 Many species resprout from surviving root systems or bases of ...FIGURE 11.6 A forest of lodgepole pine on a glacial moraine in Colorado, USA...FIGURE 11.7 A few years after a crown fire, the density of seedlings declin...FIGURE 11.8 A 2000‐ha fire in a spruce/fir forest in New Mexico, USA had pat...FIGURE 11.9 Most fires in Brazil are small, and few are very large. The two...FIGURE 11.10 Fires do not occur everywhere, all the time, or with the same i...FIGURE 11.11 Management of longleaf pine plots at the Tall Timbers Research...FIGURE 11.12 Fires may kill the cambium on part of a tree stem, leading to t...FIGURE 11.13 Fires return to ponderosa pine forests in northern Colorado wi...FIGURE 11.14 With a fire‐free period of over a century, the canopy of ponde...FIGURE 11.15 This hillside burned about a century ago, with many trees survi...FIGURE 11.16 Locations of trees and their ages allow partial reconstruction...FIGURE 11.17 Confidence in maps of fire regimes would be warranted if a simp...FIGURE 11.18 Nitrogen contained in organic matter burns just like the carbon...FIGURE 11.19 Fire impacts on soil include raising soil temperatures. The tr...FIGURE 11.20 Soils can have patches that repel water rather than absorb it,...FIGURE 11.21 Post‐fire erosion is usually minor, but in the less common situ...FIGURE 11.22 A severe forest fire in Warrumbungle National Park in New Sout...FIGURE 11.23 Many species thrive in the aftermath of fires, including beetl...FIGURE 11.24 A ponderosa pine forest in the Spring Mountains, Nevada, USA, ...
13 Chapter 12FIGURE 12.1 Archeological relocation of ancient Roman settlements showed le...FIGURE 12.2 Almost all forests fall into the category of unplanted, unmanag...FIGURE 12.3 Forests around the world have a wide range of costs and values, ...FIGURE 12.4 A spectrum of management intensity leads to very different fore...FIGURE 12.5 Intensively managed tree farms, such as clonal eucalyptus planta...FIGURE 12.6 The productivity of acacia more than doubled across four rotatio...FIGURE 12.7 Growth rates of eucalyptus across a large area of southern Brazi...FIGURE 12.8 The harvest that precedes a rotation can have a legacy on growth...FIGURE 12.9 Understory vegetation is typically very important in managed ro...FIGURE 12.10 Continuous cover forestry entails harvesting of single trees, o...FIGURE 12.11 A computer visualization of a continuous‐cover forest, viewed ...FIGURE 12.12 Forests that developed without direct management may have very ...FIGURE 12.13 After clearcutting of an old‐growth forest in Oregon, USA, the...FIGURE 12.14 Experiments in variable retention silviculture on Vancouver Isl...FIGURE 12.15 Understory responses to variable retention treatments in the MA...FIGURE 12.16 Variable retention treatments across four sitesshowed stro...FIGURE 12.17 Harvesting 50‐year‐old managed forests of Douglas‐fir in the no...FIGURE 12.18 Most logging is done by machines that cut trees, and sometimes ...FIGURE 12.19 The risks from wind generally increase after forest harvesting ...FIGURE 12.20 Severe fires in 1939 burned unmanaged forests across New South...FIGURE 12.21 Rates of harvest increased in Sweden in the past 25 years, lead...FIGURE 12.22 The unmanaged forest on the left has trees of a variety of age...
14 Chapter 13FIGURE 13.1 A panoramic photo set was taken from a sycamore tree in 1939, l...FIGURE 13.2 90% or more of known extinctions of mammals and birds resulted f...FIGURE 13.3 These western hemlock and Douglas‐fir trees are over 400 years ...FIGURE 13.4 The population of elk was held low in the mid‐1900s through hunt...FIGURE 13.5 A lithograph was made of the view from Mount Trumbull in Arizona...FIGURE 13.6 A century of change in the San Juan Mountains of Colorado, USA, ...FIGURE 13.7 The historical forest composition and structure in northern Wisc...FIGURE 13.8 Historical composition and structure can be examined based on c...FIGURE 13.9 A broadleaved forest in New Hampshire, USA had all trees cut an...FIGURE 13.10 A young reestablished forest was cleared at this site near Pem...FIGURE 13.11 An experiment that mixed 20 native species (fast‐growing, slow‐...FIGURE 13.12 The cost of reestablishing native tree species might be reduce...FIGURE 13.13 These soils are 25 m apart in the Duke Forest in North Carolina...FIGURE 13.14 A greenhouse experiment demonstrated