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43 Lightfoot, C.S. (2000). The origin and diffusion of qanats in Arabia: new evidence from the northern and southern Peninsula. The Geographical Journal, 166 (3), pp. 215–226.
44 Muhly, J. (1983). Gold analysis and the sources of gold in the Aegean. Temple University Aegean Symposium, 8, pp. 1–14.
45 Nashef, K. (1987). Rekonstruktion der Reiserouten zur Zeit der altassyrischen Handelsniederlassungen. Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients B/83. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert.
46 Oppenheim, A.L. (1985). The Babylonian evidence of Achaemenian rule in Babylonia. Cambridge History of Iran, 2, pp. 529–587.
47 Porter, Y., Vesel, Ž. (1993). La joaillerie et la peinture: approvisionnement en pierres et en pigments dans l’Iran médiéval. In R. Gyselen (ed.), Circulation des monnaies, des marchandises et des biens. Res Orientales 5. Leuven: Peeters, pp. 141–157.
48 Potts, D.T. (1982). The road to Meluhha. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 41 (4), pp. 279–288.
49 Potts, D.T. (1997). Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations. London: Athlone.
50 Potts, D.T. (2009). The Persepolis fortification texts and the Royal Road: another look at the Fahliyan area. In P. Briant, W. Henkelman, and M. Stolper (eds.), L’archive des Fortifications de Persépolis: état des questions et perspectives de recherches. Persika 12. Paris: Thotm Édition, pp. 275–301.
51 Rahimi‐Laridjani, F. (1988). Die Entwicklung der Bewässerungslandwirtschaft im Iran bis in sasanidisch‐frühislamische Zeit. Beiträge zur Iranistik 13. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert.
52 Roller, D.W. (2010). Eratosthenes' Geography. Princeton, Oxford: Princeton University Press.
53 Sachs, A.J., Hunger, H. (1988). Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia Vol. I.: Diaries from 652 B.C. to 262 B.C. Denkschriften der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, philosophisch‐historische Klasse 195. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
54 Slotsky, A.L. (1997). The Bourse of Babylon: Market Quotations in the Astronomical Diaries of Babylonia. Bethesda: University Press of Maryland.
55 Speck, H. (2002). Alexander at the Persian Gates: A Study in Historiography and Topography. American Journal of Ancient History 1. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University: Department of Classics.
56 Tengberg, M., Potts, D.T. (1999). gišmes.má‐gan‐na (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.) at Tell Abraq. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, 10, pp. 129–133.
57 Tosi, M. (1974). The problem of turquoise in protohistoric trade on the Iranian Plateau. Studi di Paletnologia, Paleoantropologia, Paleontologia e Geologia del Quaternario, 2, pp. 147–162.
58 Ur, J. (2009). Emergent landscapes of movement in Early Bronze Age northern Mesopotamia. In J.E. Snead, C.L. Erickson, and J.A. Darling (eds.), Landscapes of Movement: Trails, Paths, and Roads in Anthropological Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, pp. 180–203.
59 Waerzeggers, C. (2010). Babylonians in Susa: the travels of Babylonian businessmen to Susa reconsidered. In B. Jacobs, R. Rollinger (eds.), Der Achämenidenhof – The Achaemenid Court. Classica et Orientalia 2. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 777–813.
60 Watson, Rev. J.S., Ainsworth, W.F. (1883). The Anabasis, or Expedition of Cyrus and the Memorabilia of Socrates, Literally Translated from the Greek of Xenophon, with a Geographical Commentary. London: George Bell and Sons.
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62 Wilkinson, T.J. (2003). Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
63 Woods, J.E. (1999). The Aqquyunlu: Clan, Confederation, Empire, rev. ed. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
64 Wright, H.T., Neely, J.A. (2010). Elamite and Achaemenid Settlement on the Deh Luran Plain: Towns and Villages of the Early Empires in Southwestern Iran. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology: University of Michigan 47. Michigan: University of Michigan Museum Press.
65 Wuttmann, M., Gonon, T., and Thiers, C. (2000). The qanats of ‘Ayn‐Manâwîr, Kharga Oasis, Egypt. Journal of Achaemenid Studies and Researches, 1, pp. 1–9.
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FURTHER READING
1 Briant, P. (2011). Irrigation et drainage dans l’Antiquité, qanāts et canalisations souterraines en Iran, en Égypte et en Grèce. Persika 2. Paris: Thotm Édition. Provides critical overviews of irrigation techniques, particularly qanats, in antiquity, from Greece to Iran, touching on several regions within the Achaemenid empire.
2 Brice, W.C. (1966). South‐West Asia. London: University of London Press. A useful survey of the geography, environment, and hydrography of much of the region covered by the Achaemenid empire.
3 Goblot, H. (1979). Les qanats: une technique d’acquisition de l’eau. Paris, Hague, and New York: Mouton. A classic discussion of qanat technology in cross‐cultural perspective.
4 Herzfeld, E. (1968). The Persian Empire: Studies in Geography and Ethnography of the Ancient Near East. Edited from the Posthumous Papers by Gerold Walser. Wiesbaden: Steiner. Dated in some respects but still a very useful compendium of studies on the individual provinces of the Achaemenid empire, among many other things.
5 Rahimi‐Laridjani, F. (1988). Die Entwicklung der Bewässerungslandwirtschaft im Iran bis in sasanidisch‐frühislamische Zeit. Beiträge zur Iranistik 13. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert. A thorough review of the geography, hydrography, environment, and agriculture of all the many sub‐regions of Iran.
6 Roller, D.W. (2010). Eratosthenes' Geography. Princeton, Oxford: Princeton University Press. An excellent survey of the geographical data recorded in the lost work of Eratosthenes, but excerpted by later authors, principally Strabo.
7 Wilkinson, T.J. (2003). Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. An excellent survey of the environment and cultural as well as natural landscapes of the Near East.
CHAPTER 2 Demoscopy and Demography
Josef Wiesehöfer
Object of Research and Method
The object of demographic history is the description and explanation of the size, structure, and development of (ancient) populations in their relationship to living space. It should be noted that there are natural and uncontrollable determinants of population development as well as controllable ones, and that the interwoven determinants can simultaneously be cause and effect of such development. So far, ancient demographic history has particularly been interested in ancient views of population development, questions of the size of ancient populations (at a particular point in time or over a particular period of time), the age and gender structures of ancient societies, and particular determinants of population development such as life expectancy, marriage practices, reproduction, and fertility, and population movements. Answers to all questions concerned are normally based on the one hand on ancient source material, which, while qualitatively and/or quantitatively susceptible to evaluation, is not unproblematic (see below), and on the other hand on consideration of modern model life tables (however, available only for quite recent populations), the creation of more reliable high‐mortality models, and comparative ethnological material. In doing so, the demographic history of ancient societies has made use of the discoveries of adjacent disciplines such as