computer without or in excess of authorization with the intent to fraud. Under §1030(a)(4), the criminal must obtain anything of value, including use of the information if its value exceeds $5,000. The key factor with §1030(a)(4) is that it allows information theft (described in §1030(a)(2)) to be prosecuted as a felony if there is evidence of fraud.
Damaging a computer or information: §1030(a)(5) was originally written to describe the felony act associated with altering, damaging, or destroying a protected computer or its information, or preventing authorized use of the computer or information, such that it results in an aggregate loss of $1,000 or more during a one-year period. This provision was later rewritten and now more generally describes a misdemeanor act associated with knowingly and intentionally causing damage to a computer or information. §1030(a)(5) upgrades the crime to a felony if the damage results in losses of $5,000 or more during one year, modifies medical care of a person, causes physical injury, threatens public health or safety, damages systems used for administration of justice or national security, or if the damage affects 10 or more protected computers within 1 year.
Trafficking in passwords: §1030(a)(6) establishes a misdemeanor and prohibits a person from intentionally trafficking computer passwords or similar information when such trafficking affects interstate or foreign commerce or permits unauthorized access to computers used by or for the United States. The term traffic here means to illegally transfer or obtain control of a password with the intent to transfer it to another party. This definition is important because it excludes mere possession of passwords if there is no intent to transfer them.
Threatening to damage a computer: §1030(a)(7) describes a felony offense associated with the computer variation of old-fashioned extortion. This provision prohibits threats to damage a protected computer or threats to obtain or reveal confidential information without or in excess of authorization with intent to extort money or anything else of value.
The U.S. Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986 has seen numerous amendments over time, both directly and through other legislations. Minor amendments were made in 1988, 1989, and 1999, with major amendments being issued in 1994, 1996, and 2001 through various other acts discussed later in this chapter.
U.S. Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986
The Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) was enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1986 to extend restrictions on government wire taps to include computer and network-based communications (rather than just telephone calls). The ECPA complements the CFAA by prohibiting eavesdropping, interception, and unauthorized monitoring of all electronic communications (including those sent over computer networks).
The ECPA does, however, make certain exceptions that allow communications providers (like an ISP) to monitor their networks for legitimate business reasons if they first notify their users of the monitoring. This sets up a legal basis for network monitoring, which has been criticized over the years. The USA PATRIOT Act (discussed in a later section) made several extensive amendments to the ECPA in 2001.
U.S. Economic Espionage Act of 1996
The Economic Espionage Act (EEA) was enacted by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Clinton in 1996. The EEA was the first federal law to broadly define and establish strict penalties for theft or unauthorized use of trade secrets. The EEA makes it a criminal offense to copy, download, upload, alter, steal, or transfer trade secrets for the benefit of a foreign entity. The EEA establishes penalties for economic espionage that include fines up to $10 million and imprisonment up to 15 years, as well as forfeiture of any property used to commit economic espionage or property obtained as a result of the criminal act.
U.S. Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996
The Child Pornography Prevention Act (CPPA) was issued in 1996 to restrict and punish the production and distribution of child pornography on the internet.
U.S. Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act of 1998
The Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act was enacted in 1998, and formally established identity theft as a criminal act under U.S. federal law. Under the act, identity theft is “knowingly transfer[ring] or us[ing], without lawful authority, a means of identification of another person with the intent to commit, or to aid or abet, any unlawful activity that constitutes a violation of Federal law, or that constitutes a felony under any applicable State or local law.” Prior to the act, identity theft was not regulated or investigated as a crime, which made it difficult to prosecute the growing number of identity theft claims stemming from the rise of the internet.
USA PATRIOT Act of 2001
The Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT) Act, commonly known as the Patriot Act, was signed into law in 2001 in response to the terrorist attacks that took place in the United States on September 11, 2001. The act was initially issued as a temporary measure, but most measures were reauthorized in 2006.
The Patriot Act amends many of the provisions within the CFAA and the ECPA with both new definitions of criminal offenses and new penalties for previously and newly defined computer crimes.
The Patriot Act attempts to strengthen provisions in the CFAA and ECPA to give law enforcement further authority to protect the United States against terrorist acts. The act has been heavily debated since its inception, with some of the act's provisions having been declared unconstitutional by various federal district courts. Of the act's remaining provisions, the following are particularly relevant to the CISSP exam and to you as a security professional:
Section 202 — Authority to intercept wire, oral, and electronic communications relating to computer fraud and abuse offenses: This section amends the CFAA to authorize investigators to obtain a wiretap for felony violations relating to computer fraud and abuse.
Section 209 — Seizure of voicemail messages pursuant to warrants: This section authorizes investigators to seize voicemail messages with a search warrant. Prior to the Patriot Act, voicemail was only authorized for seizure with a harder-to-obtain wiretap order.
Section 210 — Scope of subpoenas for records of electronic communications: This section updates previous law and grants access to additional information when filing a subpoena for electronic records.
Section 212 — Emergency disclosure of electronic communications to protect life and limb: This section grants special provisions to allow a communications provider (like an ISP) to disclose customer information to law enforcement in emergency situations, such as imminent crime or terrorist attack. Prior to this amendment, communications providers may have been subject to civil liability suits for providing such information without the customer's consent.
Section 214 — Pen register and trap and trace authority under FISA: A pen register is a device that shows the outgoing calls made from a phone, while a trap and trace device shows incoming numbers that called a phone; these capabilities are often consolidated into a single device called a pen/trap device. This section of the Patriot Act authorizes use of these devices nationwide (as opposed to an issuing court's jurisdiction) and broadens authority to include computer and internet-based communications.
Section 217 — Interception of computer trespasser communications: This section amends previous law to allow communications providers and other organizations to allow law enforcement to intercept and monitor their systems. Prior to this amendment, companies were authorized to monitor their own systems, but were not permitted to allow law enforcement to assist in such monitoring.
Section 220 — Nationwide service of search warrants for electronic evidence: This section authorizes nationwide jurisdiction for search warrants related to electronic evidence, such as email.
Section 808 — Definition of federal crime of terrorism: The official definition of terrorism includes, among other things, “destruction of