military affairs or the allocation of marriage dowry. He was fully accountable to his people. If any complaint was raised, Umar made sure it was dealt with immediately and he never hesitated in correcting his own mistakes, or those of who served under him. If the complainants were found to be wrong, he reasoned with them on the basis of the Qur’an and Prophetic teachings (sunnah).
With the rapid expansion of the Islamic dominion, Umar devised a provincial system of administration and appointed governors to oversee the smooth running of each province, with all the governors reporting directly to him. Although he was based at his headquarters in Madinah, Umar always kept in close contact with all his governors, never failing to remind them about the importance of serving the people with honesty, fairness, justice and equality. A functioning judicial system was devised and implemented by Umar, so that legal disputes could be resolved in a fair and effective manner in accordance with Islamic principles and guidelines. He developed an equally efficient taxation and revenue department, which collected and distributed zakat (poor due), taxes and other revenues from all the regions of the Islamic State, under the supervision of the chief treasurer who reported directly to him. Looking after the welfare of the poor, needy, orphans and disabled people was vitally important to Umar, because he felt he was directly responsible for their well-being. In order to meet the needs of society’s most vulnerable people, Umar established a social security system. Being one of the most learned companions of the Prophet, he promoted learning and education by constructing mosques and schools across the Islamic dominion. Indeed, during his reign, mosques and educational centres mushroomed throughout the Islamic State; he also helped to rebuild such prominent cities as Basrah, Kufah, al-Fustat and Mosul, and these subsequently became some of the most prominent centres of Islamic learning, culture and civilisation.
In addition, Umar kept a regular army that was well-disciplined, highly-skilled and dedicated, so that even the well-equipped, professional soldiers of the Persian and Byzantine Empires were not a match for them. It is to Umar’s great credit that, for the first time in Islamic history, an Islamic calendar was introduced which Muslims could call their own. The hijri calendar was devised during Umar’s reign, the first day being fixed as the one on which the Prophet left Makkah for Madinah in 622. Caliph Umar was a versatile genius, a great democratic ruler and, equally, a compassionate man who assumed leadership of the embryonic Islamic State and within a decade transformed it into a powerful empire, consisting of whole of Arabia and significant parts of the Persian and Byzantine Empires. That is why his reign is widely recognised as the Golden Age of Islam. Prior to his death, Caliph Umar appointed an illustrious six-man panel to nominate his successor. Being one of the most civilised and democratic rulers of his time, he deliberately chose not to nominate his successor.
Following in the footsteps of the Prophet and his immediate predecessor, Umar wanted the masses, or their representatives, to have a say in the matter. Umar – who was given the title of al-faruq (the differentiator between right and wrong) by the Prophet for his wisdom and sense of justice – passed away at the age of around sixty-three and was buried in Madinah next to the Prophet (his mentor and guide), and Caliph Abu Bakr, his best friend. It is not possible to exaggerate Umar’s greatness, for as the Prophet once remarked, ‘Among the nations before your time there have been inspired people (who were not prophets), and if there is one among my people he is Umar.’ (Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim)
IN ANY BOOK of most influential Muslims, Ali ibn Abi Talib is bound to appear near the very top of the list. He is famous for his impeccable character, loving personality and unflinching devotion to Islam. As one of the foremost figures of early Islam, he is profoundly revered as one of the four ‘rightly-guided caliphs’ (al-khulafa alrashidun) along with Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, Umar ibn al-Khattab and Uthman ibn Affan. However, within the Shi’a branch of Islam, Ali is a pivotal figure. So much so that without the charismatic and indomitable personality of Ali there would not be a Shi’a branch of Islam at all. As such, he occupies a prominent and unique position as the fourth Caliph of Islam, and the first Imam of the Shi’ias.
Born into the Hashimite family of the Quraysh tribe of Makkah, Ali ibn Abi Talib was a cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. He became a Muslim about a year after Muhammad announced his Prophethood. Ali was barely ten at the time and he became the first boy to embrace Islam. Brought up and educated by the Prophet, Ali became one of his foremost supporters from the outset. Once, the Prophet invited all the leaders of Quraysh to a meal in order to share the message of Islam with them but when none of them responded to his call, young Ali stood up and announced that he was ready to help and support the Prophet. His bravery and courage gave hope to the Prophet and shamed all the prominent leaders who had gathered at the Prophet’s house. As it happens, Ali never failed to live up to his promise to stand by the Prophet. He remained at the Prophet’s side both at times of hardship and joy; success and sorrow. When in the year 622, the Quraysh decided to assassinate Muhammad, Ali volunteered to stay in the Prophet’s house so that the Prophet could slip out of Makkah without a trace, in the company of his friend Abu Bakr, and travel to Madinah. When the Makkans eventually entered the Prophet’s house they were surprised to find young Ali sleeping in Muhammad’s bed. After returning all the goods the people had entrusted to the Prophet for safekeeping, Ali set off for Madinah and joined him there.
Short in height, of muscular build, highly energetic and blessed with a well-proportioned body frame, Ali was also known to have been frighteningly quick. He is famous in the annals of Islam as an indomitable warrior who outsmarted his opponents on the battlefield with ease. In the year 627, when the Muslims of Madinah were forced to dig trenches around the city to avert an imminent Makkan invasion, Abdwud, the famous warrior of Arabia, managed to cross the trench and challenged the Muslims to fight him one-to-one. No one dared to accept the challenge except Ali. He grabbed his favourite double-edged sword (dhul fiqar) and confronted the most accomplished fighter in the land. Within minutes, Abdwud realised that he had at last met his match. Soon the most famous fighter of Arabia found himself lying on the floor while the victorious Ali walked into the ranks of the Muslims in humility. Such fearless bravery and accomplishments on the battlefield soon established his reputation as one of the most successful warriors of Arabia, earning him the honorific title of asadullah or the ‘lion of God’ from none other than the Prophet himself.
Ali was not only a distinguished fighter and athlete, but also a man of profound wisdom and great learning. He was considered to be one of the most learned companions of the Prophet Muhammad. In addition to being an outstanding jurist-consult, a master of Arabic language and an accomplished orator, Ali knew the entire Qur’an by heart and was one of a few companions who had composed collections of hadith (Prophetic traditions) during the Prophet’s own lifetime. Moreover, Ali is widely considered to be a pioneer of tasawwuf, or Islamic mysticism. As it happens, the majority of the prominent Sufi Orders (tariqah) trace their spiritual affiliation directly to the Prophet through Ali. Indeed, Ali became so famous for his prodigious learning and scholarship that the Prophet once remarked that he (the Prophet) was the city of knowledge, while Ali was its gate. Caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar both regularly consulted Ali on all important legal issues of the day before issuing religious edicts (fatawa). Ali’s estimation in the sight of Caliph Umar was second-to-none when it came to juristic matters. He used to say, “Ali is the greatest jurist and judge among all of us”. Ali and Caliph Abu Bakr were undoubtedly two of the most insightful Muslims after the Prophet himself.
When Caliph Uthman was brutally assassinated by a group of insurgents in 656 at the ripe old age of eighty, the unity of the Muslim world was shattered. Sheer commotion and hysteria soon spread across Madinah. It was at this critical period in Islamic history that Ali became the fourth Caliph of Islam. Like his predecessors, he assumed the office of Caliphate with some trepidation because he considered it to be a trust from God and a position of tremendous responsibility. After becoming Caliph he immediately encountered difficulties, facing stiff opposition from rival groups. He found himself caught between a rock and a hard place, as one group demanded that the murderers of Caliph Uthman be immediately apprehended and punished for their heinous crime, while the insurgents continued to wreak havoc within the Islamic State. Another group allied themselves